Article - How EDS Works

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The Genetics & Molecular Biology of EDS

What Is DNA?

The set of genetic instructions is on a very large and complex molecule

called DNA. The DNA molecule is like a very long ladder. The backbones of

the ladder are repeating sets of a sugar and a phosphate molecule. The rungs

of the ladder are made up of a pair of molecules. Each is a chemical base

attached to the sugar molecule on the backbone.

The Genetic Message

The genetic alphabet is made up of four bases: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine

and Guanine. They are abbreviated A, T, G, and C. The code for the actual

DNA instructions is the order of the bases as they are lined up on one side

of the ladder. The lineup of bases on the other side of the ladder is the

complementary strand. To keep the backbones of the DNA molecule even, an A

base on one side always pairs with T base on the other side, and G always

pairs with C. The complementary bases keep the DNA molecule even and are

critically important in allowing the DNA molecule to copy itself. The DNA

must copy (replicate) itself before the cell divides so that each new cell

can have a complete copy of the message. The first thing the DNA does to

replicate itself is to separate down the middle. This splits the paired

bases and gives two half-ladders. The exposed bases on each half-ladder

creates a pattern for the two new identical copies. Each exposed base now

pairs with a new base and new backbones are constructed. Our English

language makes words by stringing letters together. Genetic words are three

genetic letters (bases) long. Each genetic word tells the cell to get a

molecule called an amino acid. Our English language makes sentences by

stringing words together. Genetic sentences are made by stringing different

amino acids together; these make protein molecules. There are only 20 amino

acids, but by stringing them together in different combinations, a limitless

number of different proteins can be made. These proteins are the building

blocks and workhorses of the cell. They help the cells carry out the

instructions contained in the DNA molecule.

What Are Genes?

Genes contain the instructions that tell cells what to do. Basically each

gene is a genetic sentence that produces a different protein.

What Are Chromosomes?

Chromosomes are genetic books. Each one is a very long strand of DNA that

contains hundreds of genetic sentences (genes). Like English sentences,

genes are meant to be read in a certain direction, and they are arranged in

a specific order. Unlike the organization of sentences in a book, the

arrangement of genes on the chromosomes do not have to make a sensible

story. For example, a gene that produces a protein that influences hair

color may be next to a gene that helps the cell produce energy. The place

where a given gene lies along the length of a chromosome is its genetic

LOCUS. Just as books come in different sizes and thickness, chromosomes can

also have different lengths and shapes.

Pairs Of Genes, Pairs Of Chromosomes

Chromosomes (and genes) come in pairs. The two members of each pair of

chromosomes are called homologs. One homolog came from your father and the

other came from your mother. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Twenty-two

of these pairs are numbered for identification. They look the same in males

and females and are called autosomes. The 23rd pair is called the sex

chromosomes because they determine the sex of the child. Females have two

identical sex chromosomes call X chromosomes. Males have and X and a Y

chromosome. The presence of the Y chromosome determines maleness.

Different Traits Are Determined By Gene Pairs

A person with similar genes is homozygous at that locus. One with different

genes is heterozygous for that locus. The ways in which the genes are

homozygous or heterozygous determine the different types of inheritance. The

three main types of inheritance are autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive,

and sex-linked recessive.

Reading The Genetic Code

Until very recently, it was next to impossible to decode the genetic

messages. The human DNA message is about 3 billion bases long. There are

approximately 100,000 genes, so each gene has an average of 30,000 bases

coding for 10,000 amino acids each.

Restriction Enzymes

In the early 1970's, scientists discovered that bacteria had enzymes that

would attack foreign DNA and cut the DNA up into little pieces. What was

interesting was that these enzymes were restricted to a specific sequence of

the genetic alphabet to make the cut. This is why they are named restriction

enzymes (RE). There are over 200 restriction enzymes known and many cut the

DNA in different places.

Genetic Probes

A genetic probe is a piece of DNA that matches the message you are trying to

find. This probe also may be labeled with a radioactive chemical.

Molecular Genetics

The technique for finding genes goes something like this. First you cut the

DNA with a restriction enzyme. All the pieces of DNA after one of these cuts

are called restriction fragments. Next you separate all the cut DNA by the

size of the resulting pieces. If you put the DNA in a gel (like unflavored

Jello) and pass an electric current through the gel, the DNA will migrate in

the direction of the current. The smaller pieces will migrate further than

larger pieces. Next you transfer the DNA to a piece of filter paper, like a

coffee filter [it is easier to work with paper than with Jello!!]. Next you

use the radioactive labeled probe to find the restriction fragment(s) that

match the probe. The probe will attach to the restriction fragment(s) it

matches. Finally, you can see where the probe attached to the DNA on the

paper by exposing it to a sheet of unexposed X-ray film. This is

autoradiography. You can estimate the size of DNA fragments by how far they

have migrated. Small pieces move farther than bigger pieces. All the DNA

fragments revealed by this technique are called RFLPs, which stand for

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism.

Family Studies

Frequently we do not have a probe that is complementary to the DNA of

interest. Instead we can use a piece of anonymous DNA -- this is one where

the message is known and that message doesn't mean anything. If we take DNA

from family members with a known genetic condition, we can apply these

techniques to look at the RFLPs in that family. If one RFLP is consistently

found in all family members with the same condition, we have good evidence

that RFLP either contains or is very close to the gene causing the

condition.

Autosomal Dominant Inheritance

Genes are the basic unit of inheritance. They provide the instructions for

growth and development of the single cell of a fertilized ovum into the

complex structure of a baby. Many continue to provide instructions for the

production of proteins needed for bodily functions throughout a person's

lifetime. Genes are strung together like beads on a string and packaged into

individual chromosomes. Chromosomes come in pairs; with one coming from an

individual's mother and the other from the father. One pair of chromosomes

is called the sex chromosomes, since they determine the sex of the

individual; the other 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes.

Since our chromosomes come in pairs, we have two copies of all of our genes.

The two copies in a pair of genes may or may not have the same code. A gene

that is expressed regardless of the code in the other gene is said to be

dominant. An autosomal dominant gene is one carried on one of the 22 pairs

of autosomes which means that males and females with the gene are equally

likely to pass it on to male or female offspring.

A person who has an autosomal dominant form of EDS (Classical,

Hypermobility, Vascular, and Arthrochalasia types) generally has one gene

for EDS and one normal gene in one pair of genes. There is a 50 percent

chance that the affected parent will contribute the EDS gene and a 50

percent he or she will contribute the normal gene.

There can be variation in the expression of a dominant gene even within the

same family. In other words, the gene may cause a profound loss for an

individual and only a mild to moderate loss for that individual's child.

Another phenomenon that is seen with some dominant genes is non-penetrance.

This means that there is no detectable evidence that an individual with a

dominant gene has the gene. When the gene is non-penetrant it appears that

the gene has skipped a generation.

Autosomal Recessive Inheritance

A person with an autosomal recessive EDS (Kyphoscoliosis and Dermatosparaxis

types) would have to have two recessive genes for EDS in that particular

pair of genes. A person with a normal gene and an EDS gene would not have a

EDS, but would be considered a carrier. Generally the EDS gene has been

passed down through the carrier's family for generations. A carrier has no

way of knowing that he or she has an EDS gene until having a child with EDS.

Then it becomes apparent that the individual and the individual's spouse

each is a carrier. All of us have several recessive genes, each of which

could cause significant problems for our children if it happened to get

paired up with the same recessive gene from our partner.

For example, if the mother and father are carriers of a gene for EDS, it can

be designated with an r. They also have one normal gene which is designated

with an R. When they have a child each will pass on one of those genes. If

they both pass on the R, the child will have two normal messages, not have

EDS and cannot pass the EDS gene to his children. There is 1 chance out of 4

or a 25% chance for the child of two carriers to receive both normal genes.

If one parent passes on the R and the other the r, the child will have one

normal message, not have EDS, and be a carrier like the parents There are 2

chances out of four, or a 50% chance of the child of two carriers being a

carrier also. If both parents pass on an r, the child will have no normal

message and will have EDS. There is 1 chance out of 4 or a 25% chance that

the child of two carrier parents will receive both EDS genes and have EDS.

The chance of carrier parents having a child with EDS is the same with each

pregnancy. If they have one child with EDS, it does not mean that their next

child will not have a EDS also. The genes are passed on in a random manner

and what has already happened in existing offspring has no influence on

future offspring.

Regardless of the type of EDS, parents should never feel guilt toward

themselves for passing along an EDS gene, this can not be controlled nor

predicted in each pregnancy.