UNIVERSAL IMMUNIZATION: Medical Miracle or Masterful Mirage

[Guest guest]

This will help you to understand the reality of vaccination in the third

world.

No monitoring, no individualizing, no follow up and then they think they

can pass off articles about measles declining, or the vaccine working.

Many things children die of are vaccine reactions but labeled something

else as we know.

EXCELLENT LONG ARTICLE

http://www.whale.to/a/obomsawin.html

UNIVERSAL IMMUNIZATION

Medical Miracle or Masterful Mirage

By Dr. Obomsawin

(This book first appeared at the Soil and Health Library, an important

source of books

on holistic agriculture, holistic health, self-sufficient living, and

personal development)

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF: RAYMOND OBOMSAWIN

PREFACE

ABSTRACT

Introduction

The Unresolved Issue of UCI/EPI Effectiveness and Impact

The Unresolved Question of Potential Adverse Effects

The Unresolved Issue of Long-Term Adverse Effects

The Unresolved Issue of Safer and More Effective Alternatives

The Unresolved Question of Ethics

Conclusion

SECTION I: MIRACLE IN THE MAKING: REALITY OR DELUSION?

Introduction

EPI--Field Evaluation Experience

UNICEF's General EPI Strategy and Stated Achievements

Field Observations

Contra-Indications Screening

A Case History

Vaccine Scheduling

Immunization's Impact in the Declension of Infectious Diseases

Incomplete Statistical Reporting

The Developmental Implications of UCL/EPI

Is Immunization Effectiveness a Certainty?

Early Theoretical Foundations Re-Examined

Artificially Induced Immunity--Reality or Delusion?

An Historic Overview of the Bacterial/Viral Theory of Disease Causation

The Bacterial/Viral Versus the Cellular/Ecological Theory of Infectious

Disease

Infectious Disease Tables I--XVIII

Immunization Effectiveness Data

Data on Diphtheria

Data on Measles

Data on Polio

Data on Pertussis (Whooping Cough)

Data on Tetanus Toxoid and Immune Globulin

WHO Smallpox Eradication Success Reconsidered

Vaccine Associated Dangers--General Observations

Of What Do Vaccine Products Consist?

Some Observed and Potential Adverse Effects of Spacific Vaccines and

Toxoids--Diagnosable in the Short Term

Extent and Nature of Observable Vaccine Damage

Long Term (Delayed) Potential Adverse Effects of Immunization

Evidences for Immunization Induced Immune Malfimction

The Ethics of Universal Childhood Immunization

Bane or Boon? Selective Medicine in Primary Health Care

SECTION II: TOWARDS MORE APPROPRIATE PRIORITIES IN

DEVELOPING WORLD PRIMARY HEALTH CARE

Eclipsing the Spirit of Alma Ata

Emerging--A More Practicable Primary Health Care Model

SECTION III: A CONSIDERATION OF ALTERNATIVES TO ENSURING NATURAL IMMUNITY

The Soil as Chief Determinant of Health and The Foundation of Public Health

Policy

Insightful Experiments

Soil Re-Mineralization--A Return To Primeval Conditions

Soil Dietetics and Disease

Key Nutritional Measures in Preventing Infectious Disease

Vitamin A

Vitamin C

I. Viral Infections

II. Bacterial Infections

III. Phagocytotic Activity

IV. Conclusion

A New and Better Strategy

General Conclusion on Appropriate Alternatives

Conclusion

References to sections 1,2 & 3

ANNEX 1: PROBLEMS WITH DEVELOPING WORLD MEDICALIZATION AND THE TRADITIONAL

MEDICINE ALTERNATIVE

The Disturbing Dilemma of Developing World Medicalization

India--An Alarming Case In Point

A Compelling Voice of Protest

The Traditional Medicine Alternative

Critical Conclusions and Directions

References

ANNEX II: AGROCHEMICAL AGRICULTURE--THE NEED FOR A SANER ALTERNATIVE

The Dilemma of Chemical Fertilization

Pesticide Poisons

Biologically Sound Alternatives To Pesticides

The Promise of Clean Organiculture Methods

A Recent International Initiative in Clean Organiculture

References

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF: RAYMOND OBOMSAWIN

Obomsawin was born in the United States on August 16, 1950 and

holds dual US and Canadian citizenship. He married Marie-Louise in August

of 1976, and they have three, vibrant children: Sunrise, Sunbeam and

Sundown. These children--two are still in their teens, and one is

twenty-one--have never received the prescribed regimen of childhood

vaccines, and due to a healthful lifestyle have exhibited total immunity to

the diseases that are common to the childhood years. (Time and again

they've been physically exposed to those ill from some of these very

diseases.)

Dr. Obomsawin holds over two decades of cross-cultural experience--both in

North America and internationally--in the primary disciplines which impact

on human bio-social development. He holds a Baccalaureate Degree in Health

Education and Communications, Masters Degree in Development Education, and

PhD with concentrations in Health Science and Human Ecology.

He is currently serving as President of the Circle of Nations Institute of

Life Sciences & Sustainable Development an international R & D institution

legally established in Hawaii, and has previously served as: Manager of

Overseas Operations for CUSO (Canada's largest International Development

NGO); Evaluation Analyst in the Canadian International Development Agency;

Evaluation Manager with the Department of Indian Affairs & Northern

Development; Executive Director in the California Rural Indian Health Board

system; Director of the Office for National Health Development NIB (Now

Assembly of First Nations); Founding Chairman of the National Commission

Inquiry on Indian Health; and Supervisor of Native Curriculum for the

Government of the Yukon Territory.

Some key highlights of Dr. Obomsawin's professional experiences and

achievements follow:

Chaired and served on regional, national, and international committees

holding development related policy, management, and research mandates.

Advised senior decision-makers--in both public and NGO sectors--providing

critical analyses and recommendations on international development

policies, project, and programming initiatives in health, education,

agriculture, nutrition, agro-forestry, environmental sustainability, and

multi-year country planning.

Spearheaded the first world-wide inter-sectoral review funded by a Western

government on Indigenous Culture Based Knowledge Systems in Development.

The study elicited the involvement of public and NGO sector bio-social

development, technical and research institutions in all world regions; and

entailed exploratory field missions to the Andean and Upper Amazon regions

of South America, as well as East Africa, South and Southeast Asia.

Organized, administered, and executed socio-politically sensitive

evaluation studies on complex bio-social service interventions, as well as

educational and development initiatives internationally, eg, as a team

member evaluated: UNICEF's Integrated Services Project which served over

900 villages in Northeast Thailand; and other development projects at the

Asian Pacific Development Centre, Malaysia; Asian Institute of Management,

and The Woman for Woman Foundation, Philippines; and Institute of Social

and Administrative Studies, University of the South Pacific, Fiji.

Coordinated (in Canada and Norway) the initial development of Terms of

Reference for a comprehensive evaluation of the United Nations World Food

Program--operant in 90 countries under the trilateral sponsorship of

Canada, Norway, and the Netherlands.

Spearheaded the establishment and chaired Canada's National Commission

Inquiry on Indian Health which served as a national--grass-roots

mandated--indigenous health policy development body.

Presented--in plenary session--the paper " From Selective to Indigenous

Medicine: Repossessing the Ancient Wisdom,' at the International

Development Research Centre and National Institutes of Health sponsored

International Workship on Traditional Health Systems and Public Policy.

Presented the keynote address " Re-Discovering Our Roots: The Ancient Wisdom

of Sustainable Societies " at the Community Sustainability Resource

Institute's 3rd Annual Conference, USA.

Experienced multi-cultural exposure including private, voluntary, and or

public sector interchange in over 25 countries on five continents, as well

as Australasia and select Pacific island nations, and

Produced academically and professionally over 75 articles, reports,

proposals and publication documents.

PREFACE

TO THE THIRD EDITION

(MAY 1998)

Dr. Obomsawin, PhD

This extensive report focuses on the current massive international effort

to administer artificial immunization to the children of the world. The

actual launching of the World Health Organizations's Universal or " Expanded

Program on Immunization " (EPI) occurred in the year 1983. Its overriding

purpose was to achieve maximum immunization coverage of the world's

children. Under the influence of the WHO--which is a United Nations created

and sustained multilateral agency--all national political leaders (then

representing 158 nation states) made a commitment to achieve 80%

immunization coverage in their respective countries by the year 1990. In

that year the WHO set a new standard for the governments of the world, ie,

a more intensified goal of achieving 90% immunization coverage by the year

2000. As a review document, this report poses an open challenge to the

scientific, developmental, and humanitarian basis of this global public

policy, in turn urging national governments to establish a far more

rational, effective and harmless inter-sectoral approach in seeking to

ensure that the children and families of our world community enjoy lifelong

natural immunity to infectious diseases.

The research covered in this document tackles the issue of universal

immunization from a very broad perspective, thereby going well beyond the

more obvious realities of its being a " medical racket " hatched by a

pharmaceutical industry beholden to its investors, and religiously

dispensed and defended by allopathic medicine men. Through employing

trans-disciplinary and integrative analyses it draws upon wide-ranging

disciplines and fields of thought as it considers the purposes, policies

and practices surrounding mass immunization. The effort to research and

pull together this report occurred while I was serving as an Evaluation

Analyst in the Evaluation Division at the Canadian International

Development Agency. My initial research began early in 1991, contextual to

conducting a field evaluation of the EPI component of a major UNICEF

project then affecting several hundred communities in Northeast Thailand.

The report is being distributed and or sold in its present form under the

auspices of a non-profit public health advocacy organization, the Health

Action Network Society, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. (As author, I

will receive no royalties from either its sale or distribution.)

Since the first edition came out in the early 1990s, the many serious

issues and concerns which are raised in this study have not by any means

been properly addressed or resolved. The medico-industrial complex has

neither wavered nor modified its posture of providing a white washed

endorsement and promotion of what is largely an unproven technological fix

of dubious origin, which carries its own seeds of disease and death. For

the most part, the same can be said for the public sector policies whereby

government such as that of the United States place themselves in an

untenable conflict of interest position by playing a direct role in the

development of new vaccines, the active promotion and enforcement of

mandatory artificial immunization, and the monitoring of vaccines for

adverse side effects thereby setting its own criteria and degree of

liability in the compensation of victims. (Only one in four vaccine injury

victims, who apply for compensation under US law, are compensated for their

often catastrophic vaccine injuries. Government qualifying rules require

that the onset of adverse symptoms must have occurred within four hours of

the administration of the vaccine. Despite these severe limitations in

legal liability, since passage of the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act

of 1986, up to February 28, 1998, compensatory payments have totalled $871

million 800 thousand.)

Sad to say, the public sector's world-wide reliable monitoring for adverse

side effects (not excluding that of the US Government) does not appear to

have noticeably improved from its abysmal state since the initial issuance

of this report. As well, multilateral development agencies such as UNICEF

continue to push this unproven and essentially spurious technology on a

largely uninformed and intimidated public throughout the Developing World

nations. On a positive note, within First World nations public awareness of

the problems and dangers associated with mass immunization programs appear

to have broadened and intensified. Vehicles of the information revolution,

such as the Internet have helped considerably. Even physicians themselves

are at long last waking up to and advocating the truth, e.g., in France,

200 doctors have called on their govemement to immediately halt the

hepatitis B vaccine program because of the many cases of neurological

disorders and multiple sclerosis being caused by this vaccine, and in

Switzerland, 500 doctors continue to oppose their govemement's MMR vaccine

campaign.

Lawsuits for vaccine damages have as well become increasingly common. In

the summer of 1997, various news reports in the Commonwealth countries

reported that Dawbams law firm in Norfolk, England is carrying forward a

major class action lawsuit for widespread damages arising from Britain's

1994 MMR campaign. In a public statement issued by this law firm it is

affirmed that:

We know of hundreds of children who were fat and well before being

vaccinated, but who are now chronically ill or seriously mentally or

physically disabled. Of some 600 cases: the most common are autism (202);

serious digestive problems (110); epilepsy (97); hearing and vision

problems (40); arthritis (42); behaviour and learning problems (41); ME

(24); diabetes (9); paralysis (9); blood disorders (5); brain damage (3);

and death (14).

Bolstering the firm's case is the fact that the affected children's

pediatricians and neurologists continue to state in British radio and TV

documentaries that the children's varied injuries were in fact caused by

administration of the MMR vaccine.

Additionally, growing numbers of affected parents and professionals have

been instrumental in the emergence of multiple research and activist

organizations such as the Immunization Awareness moni Society (IAS), New

Zealand; Vaccine Awareness Network (VAN), Australia; Association for

Vaccine Damaged Children (AVDC), Canada; Global Vaccine Awareness League

(GVAL), California; and the National Vaccine Information Center (AWIC) in

the Greater Washington DC area. This phenomena tells us that there are

still some heroic and honest hearted people left in our world who are

willing to stand together for the right, and make personal sacrifices of

their time, resources, and reputations in the face of the combined efforts

of government and industry to both slander and silence them. In fact, in

recent weeks a prominent member of the IAS has been in touch with me, and

shared information which included the fact that a 1992 survey by their

organization found an almost 500% greater incidence of asthma among New

Zealand children who've received routine childhood vaccines, than among

those who haven't.

It is also of interest that on September 13-15, 1997, more than 500

parents, physicians, university scientists, health officials, legal

experts, ethicists, journalists and activists from 34 states and five

countries convened for the First International Public Conference on

Vaccination. This historic session was organized under the auspices of the

National Vaccine Information Center (NVIC). According to information

provided by the NVIC, the Conference inter alia examined issues such as

vaccines and infant dealth; biological mechanisms of vaccine injury;

vaccines and learning disorders; hepatitis B vaccine injuries; viral

vaccinces and chromosome damage; polio vaccine contamination; and vaccine

regulation. A number of the more important observations made by the

presenters at the conference further corroborate and complement the

alarming findings that are raised in my report. Some key observations follow:

The " P " in the old DPT vaccine is so highly toxic to the human brain that

the whole cell pertussis vaccine should be immediately withdrawn from the

market.

Vaccines which cause brain inflammation and severe brain damage, such as

DPT, are also biologically capable of causing milder forms of brain damage,

such as learning disabilities and Attention Deficit Disorder.

Live viral vaccines are implicated in brain injuries, such as the MMR

vaccine which is now linked to autism, while the same vaccine has never

been fully investigated for its long term effects on human immune and

neurological systems.

Live viral vaccines may also be implicated as a cause of genetic damage in

humans.

There are many reports of adults in Canada, who have suffered central

nervous system and immune dysfunction or death following hepatitis B

vaccination.

Polio vaccines contaminated with monkey viruses may have caused the

development of HIV- I and rare forms of bone, brain and lung cancers in

humans.

Children injured by vaccines and other toxic insults, have disturbances in

biochemistry such as imbalances in fatty acid metabolism and neurologic

dysfunction such as autistic spectrum disorders and seizure disorders.

Data from New Zealand and several European countries suggests that early

childhood vaccination has caused an increase in juvenile diabetes.

A combination of multiple vaccinations and multiple exposures to

environmental and chemical toxins may cause immune and neurological

dysfunction in the general population like that being suffered by Gulf War

veterans.

Government health officials in federal health agencies have withheld

information about vaccine risks from the public.

The general consensus among research scientists in attendance was that

current immunization programs are causing injuries and deaths because of

inadequate vaccine safety research, testing, manufacturing and monitoring

for long term effects. What's new? (Conference proceedings are available to

the public from the National Vaccine Information Center: #206-512 W. Maple

Avenue, Vienna, VA, USA, 22180, Telephone: 1-800-909-SHOT.)

It also bears mentioning that I recently came across a June, 1995 interview

with an old acquaintance, the veteran physician to the Aboriginal People of

Australia, Dr. Archie Kalokerinos. The interview was published in the

International Vaccination Newsletter (Krekenstraat 4, 3600 Genk, Belgium).

Archie is in many ways a man deserving of great recognition for his brave

struggle with the establishment forces in his country, who attempted to

block his efforts to expose and reverse the massive death rates (as high as

50%) being caused by mass immunization in a population at great risk to its

dangers. In this interview he states that it was this " extreme hostility "

that:

.. . . forced me to look into the question of vaccination further, and the

further I looked the more shocked I became. I found that the whole vaccine

business was indeed a gigantic hoax. Most doctors are convinced that they

are useful, but if you look at the proper statistics and study the

instances of these diseases you will realize that this is not so . . .

My final conclusion after forty years or more in this business [medicine]

is that the unofficial policy of the World Health Organization and the

unoffical policy of the 'Save the Children's Fund' and ... [other vaccine

promoting] organizations is one of murder and genocide. . . . I cannot see

any other possible explanation. . . . You cannot immunize sick children,

malnourished children, and expect to get away with it. You'll kill far more

children than would have died from natural infection.

Although the public sector in Canada hired a biomedical protagonist of

artificial immunization to attack and undermine the original findings and

observations contained in this document, nothing was effectively challenged

or disproven in this determined effort, nor has there been any challenge

from any other quarter since. Furthermore, I've received some very good

news from a reliable source in Montreal, Canada, that a number of

practicing physicians in that city have ceased using vaccines in their

practice after having read this report. I fully trust that it will prove of

lasting value in informing and influencing other professionals, parents and

interested lay persons who may be honestly seeking to explore both sides of

the controversy for the first time.

Finally, it is my sincere hope that the re-issuance of this document will

provide a considerable source of valuable documentation and commentary for

those who are at the forefront in the battle for biomedical truth and right

in a world largely beholden to the bottom line of capitalists who value

their profits above seemingly everything else. In the end, the truth with

prevail.

" Discovery Consists In Seeing

What Every body Else Has Seen

And Thinking What Nobody

Else Has Thought . . . "

Albert Szent-Gyorgi

ABSTRACT

Introduction

Despite the widely accepted view that millions of children now enjoy

freedom from various life threatening infectious diseases, and thus

improved health, because of highly effective and safe vaccine programs, at

the outset of the 90's an Evaluation of Canada's International Immunization

Program Phase I (CIIP--I), concluded that in fact there are " many pressing

questions which remain to be investigated within EPI (Expanded Programs of

Immunization) and Primary Health Care. " A range of critical issues relative

to Universal Childhood Immunization (UCI) and EPI programs have been

examined and responded to in the main report. These follow:

The Unresolved Issue of UCI/EPI Effectiveness and Impact

The verifiable measurement of UCI/EPI effectiveness and impacts, has been

pervasively deficient in the major immunization programming investments

made by The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)--approaching

$150 million--in the 1986-1991 time period. The aforenoted CIIP--I

evaluation study further noted that the actual impact of UCI/EPI on

mortality levels remain essentially undetermined and unsubstantiated. To

quote: " at present it appears that there is no conclusive evidence on the

impact of immunization on child mortality from all causes. . . . It may be

that EPI's effect is merely to bring about replacement mortality, whereby

children . . . succumb to other diseases instead. The uncertainty over the

impacts of EPI remain a major question in PHC [primary health care]

programming. " In light of the compelling need for the proper and periodic

evaluation of the impacts of publicly financed programs, this deficiency

remains a very serious one.

Unexpected and unexplainable outbreaks among " immunized " persons, have led

immunologists to now seriously question whether their current understanding

of what constitutes reliable immunity is in fact trustworthy. For example,

the admission is being made that immunity (or its absence) cannot be

determined reliable on the basis of history of the disease, history of

immunization, or even history of prior serologic determination. There is as

well an emerging body of mathematically based epidemiological research

which suggests significant problems with UCI/EPI targeted efforts for the

control and eradication of measles in the Developing World, where in spite

of high measles immunization coverages, measles epidemics are being

reported with surprising frequency.

Vaccine failures in the Oman polio epidemic could not be explained by

failures in the cold chain, nor on suboptimum vaccine potency. It was

further observed that the efficacy of OPV in inducing humoral immunity has

been lower than expected, and that primary reliance on routine immunization

may be inadequate to achieve the goal of eradicating polio by the year

2000. (Similar polio outbreaks have been occurring in other highly

vaccinated populations, e.g., the Gambia, Brazil, and Taiwan.)

The Unresolved Question of Potential Adverse Effects

Another basic issue that has never been addressed in UCI/EPI programming is

the need for the effective monitoring and evaluation of potential vaccinal

adverse effects. Past estimates on the degree of adverse reactions are both

unreliable and optimistic since actual monitoring efforts have generally

been negligible. Furthermore, many physicians and nurses are not cognizant

of the importance of reporting untoward reactions, and or remain unaware of

their clinical features. Overall, the evidence strongly suggests that the

chronic underreporting of vaccine-induced morbidity, disability, and

mortality is in fact the norm, whether in the Developing or Developed

Worlds. The first definitive policy statement on this issue by the World

Health Organization (issued on April 1991) indicates the WHO's recognition

of the significance of this problem. It should be considered as a priority

issue in future UCI/EPI research, monitoring and evaluation.

The Unresolved Issue of Long-Term Adverse Effects

A minority of qualified scientists are now postulating that the full

vaccine schedule as routinely employed in early childhood vaccination

inevitably weakens the immunologic system of the child, leaving this system

crippled in its ability to protect the child throughout life, and in turn

opening the way for other infectious diseases due to such immunologic

dysfunction. It is also being postulated by such scientists that mass

immunization is directly contributing to the now widespread escalation of

various auto-immune, degenerative disease and allergic conditions.

The Unresolved Issue of Safer and More Effective Alternatives

Sufficient evidence now suggests that an increasing awareness of the

potential dangers that are being increasingly associated with mass

vaccination programs, will serve to precipitate public demand for greater

research investments in the further exploration and testing of promising

and danger-free alternative prophylactic methods. A considerable body of

literature on lifestyle (especially nutrition) based prophylaxis and

treatment for both bacterial and viral infectious diseases suggest that

this is the optimum alternative to the artificial immunization dilemma.

The Unresolved Question of Ethics

UCI/EPI--as presently conceived and executed--represents two major

departures from the time honoured ethics and traditions of medicine:

that all forms of treatment should be individualized, particularly when

prescribing or injecting substances which carry the potential for disease,

disablement, and death; and

the objectively informed patient (or parent) should always have absolute

freedom to accept or reject any given measure or therapy, and have

reasonable opportunity to consider alternatives.

Conclusion

The foregoing observations indicate that there is a genuine need for world

governments to reconsider their policies with respect to universal

childhood immunization, ensuring particular focus on clarifying the vital

issues of the short and longer term impacts of UCI/EPI, and the pressing

need to establish far safer and more effective alternatives.

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SECTION l

MIRACLE IN THE MAKING:

REALITY OR DELUSION?

INTRODUCTION

Universal Childhood Immunization (UCI)--in its more localized context

referred to as Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI)--stands worldwide as

a top health programming priority among various multilateral, bilateral,

and nongovernmental (NGO) international development agencies. This appears

to be the case because immunization programs are widely accepted and

actively promoted as offering recipient beneficiaries more substantive

disease prevention benefits than any other modality in the arsenal of

modern medicine, coupled to its unique capacity to offer the surest and

" quickest " results. When compared to the more basic intersectoral and

developmental requisites for public health sustenance and disease

prevention, UCI/EPI is generally considered to be the easiest to implement

programmatically, promote publicly, and defend politically. The World

Health Organization (WHO) has gone on record to affirm that, " Immunization

is one of the most powerful and cost-effective weapons of modern medicine.

Immunization services, however, remain tragically under-utilized in the

world today. " 1

Despite the Canadian govemment's confirmed support of the comprehensive

primary health care approach--as defined in the Alma Ata Declaration--the

majority of increases in the Canadian International Development Agency

(CIDA) Health Sector disbursements, in the last half of the 1980s, have

been for the selective and vertical modality of UCI/EPI. In fact, according

to observations made in the 1989, Evaluation Assessment of CIDA Investments

in the Health Sector, immunization has become the dominant health activity

supported by CIDA. " Annual disbursements over the past three years have

risen from $3 to $22, to $49 million. " 2 The lion's share of this increase

stemmed from the launching of Canada's International Immunization Programme

(CIIP), covering the period of 1986-1991. (An October 10, 1991 Fact Sheet

on Canada's Role in Immunization, states that of the $43 million expended

by CIIP in the period 1985-1990, involved the execution--by more than 30

nongovernmental organizations--of over 100 projects in more than 50

countries. When we include the government-to-government [bilateral]

program, total CIDA funds committed to UCI/EPI in the 1986/1987-1990/1991

fiscal year periods equal some $143 million. At the end of 1991/1992 it was

the intention of the government to expend roughly another $50 million on

UCI/EPI over the next five years, with about $30 million for CIIP II.)

According to a Mid-Term CIIP Operational Review completed November 20,

1989, UNICEF took almost $27 million from the Program for 37 EPI projects,

amounting to 67% of CIIP funds. Additional CIIP funding passed indirectly

to UMCEF, via Rotary for vaccine purchases, and via Canadian partners who

purchased project equipment from UNICEF stockpiles.3

Speaking of this major shift in priorities, wherein by the end of the 1980s

immunization support accounted for one half of all health sector

disbursements, the CIDA Health Sector Evaluation Assessment recommended

that " this situation merits examination on the grounds of both the heavy

focus by CIDA on this one type of health program and the nature of

immunization efforts . . . Primary Health Care is more complex and

multifaceted then the provision of this one . . . technology. " 4 This need

to re-examine immunization support was further affirmed when the Assessment

identified certain " important am that merit further review, " including:

case studies of the health impact of projects involving or crossing varied

sectors; the level of sustainability achieved in completed CIDA health

projects; and areas of large spending or of controversy, i.e., immunization. " 5

Although the Assessment did not go on to define the nature of the

controversies surrounding immunization, mass immunization programs have

been seriously questioned on both developmental and scientific grounds. It

will be the purpose of this report to proceed with a detailed examination

of the issues of controversy, draw some conclusions, and make appropriate

recommendations. The critique of these issues stems from a careful review

and evaluation of wide ranging biomedical literature sources of relevance

to the subject. This work has been carried out in the spirit of honest

inquiry, thus affording a fresh and critical analyses of the fundamental

issues.

Although the conclusions as reached visibly sustain " one side " of what is

largely a hidden and professionalist dominated debate on immunization, the

reader should note that this is done in order to provide a long neglected

and constructive counterbalance to the predominating supportive

declarations of the establishment, and in turn the parroted promotion of

the same view by the popular media.

It must further be appreciated that past and ongoing investments in the

drive for universal immunization extend well beyond the mere allocation of

substantial government and publicly donated funds (which translates into

biennial expenditures of a billion US dollars, 63 percent of which comes

from Developing World countries themselves)6 to include:

extensive public and private sector commitment to meeting the

infrastructural, service, product and marketing requirements of the

world-wide medico-industrial complex which employs tens of thousands of

people in drug companies, private laboratories, universities, governmental

health departments, hospitals etc. (furthermore it is estimated that there

are 25,000 professional national and international staff who directly

oversee hundreds of thousands of field workers involved in the annual

vaccination of 60 million children);7

related domestic and international legislation and politics; and

massive public educational indoctrination initiatives that are largely

predicated on promoting the unquestioned effectiveness and relative safety

of immunization, and which by design engender an impelling fear in those

" unprotected. "

UNICEF's Executive Director has gone on record in many fora to herald the

substantive value and potency of immunization. In advance of the inception

of Canada's current and greatly expanded International Immunization program

he gave a full and unqualified assurance that " Expanded immunization--using

newly improved vaccines " will " prevent the six main immunizable diseases

from killing an estimated 5 million children a year and disabling 5 million

more. " 8

The front page of the January/February, 1988, issue of Development Forum,

published by the U.N. Department of Public Information, unequivocally

affirms that " immunization is the success story of the decade. In the

Developing World immunization has reached 50 percent for DPT vaccine and 40

percent for measles, and is now saving over 1.3 million lives annually. "

Everyone is encouraged--bordering on religious fervor--to get on the

bandwagon.

UNICEF.. calls for a 'Grand Alliance' of all possible resources teachers,

and religious leaders, mass media and government agencies, voluntary

organizations and people's movements, business leaders and labour unions,

women's groups and health services to create an informed public demand for.

.. . the methods which could now bring about 'a revolution' in child

survival and development. In Turkey, for example, 200,000 school teachers

and 54,000 imams have helped to treble the nation's immunization coverage.

In Syria and Egypt, television has succeeded in getting the immunization

message into every home . . . UNICEF argues that 'there is no greater cause

in which to march.' 9

Indeed, immunization has of late gained the distinction of being considered

the " leading edge " in primary health care, and is extolled by its advocates

as " the single most successful component of the child survival program. "

Its high acceptance and apparent success relate to a number of factors:

A technological package that is easily understood and readily available . .

.. the fact that vaccination does not require substantial behaviourial

change; the relative ease of measuring coverage and its offer of an

opportunity for political leadership at all levels to be visibly involved.

Finally, it is the single component of PHC that provides the greatest

opportunity for the private sector to participate through the supply or

production of vaccine and cold chain equipment.10

It is accepted wisdom among medical professionals and in turn the public,

that millions of children now enjoy improved health and freedom from

various life-threatening diseases because of safe and effective vaccines.

In the words of Fulginiti, " morbidity and deaths secondary to the

contagious diseases have either been eradicated, measles greatly reduced in

occurrence, and rubella, mumps, pertussis, and other diseases significantly

lessened in terms of their impact. " 11

EPI--FIELD EVALUATION EXPERIENCE

This general examination of Immunization as a central modality in the

prevention of common infectious diseases in the Developing World will begin

with some salient extracts taken from the writer's findings in a field

evaluation he carried out on a UNICEF--Expanded Program of Immunization and

Primary Health Care initiative in Northeast Thailand, in March of 1990. The

data derived from evaluating the EPI component is being provided as basic

background information because it provides some useful insights on

comparable UNICEF-EPI initiatives that are now occurring throughout the

Developing World, and points to some critical issues meriting further

investigation. (EPI was one of eight components in the Integrated Services

Project for Children, extending over a five year period, at a cost

exceeding $8,500,000.(Cdn). This funding was primarily provided by the

Canadian Government, and supplemented with public contributions. The

Project was executed by UNICEF Thailand, in cooperation with the Royal Thai

Government.)

The EPI in Northeast Thailand proved to be a considerable undertaking. It

included: the execution of a cluster survey on immunization coverage in all

59 districts (in which there are over 900 villages); provision of EPI

training for 600 Village Health Volunteers, Village Health Communicators,

and religious leaders; similar training for 200 health care providers, and

40 multiple WHO staff, EPI information strengthening and finally social

mobilization to vaccinate, viz. provide BCG/OPV/DPT and measles coverage

for all 59 districts. It further involved the equipping of 373 tambon

(subdistrict) health centres with sufficient numbers of. refrigerators;

vaccine carriers with four icepacks; BCG vaccine kits; thermometers; cold

chain monitoring cards; and steam sterilizers.

The EPI initiative placed its strategic concentration on the following areas:

EPI training of village and religious leaders

emphasis on reaching progressively higher annual vaccination targets

provision of cold chain equipment and support to targeted Tambons

information campaigns in primary and elementary schools

public education campaigns in targeted villages

increased vaccine production; and

strengthening the EPI information system at the district and provincial

level.

In reviewing figures for the project covering the first three years

(1985-1987), the priority emphasis on immunization is evident. Project

expenditures for this component reached 126 percent of the original target

for immunization, compared to only 28 percent for primary health care. Food

and nutrition fared somewhat better at 60 percent of the target, a little

under the project average of 61 percent. A budget analysis conducted on the

project for this period states that " Implementation of the community action

component is . . . low. However, the savings obtained here will be passed

on to the EPI and pre-school components . . . " The reason given for

exceeding the original budget projections for EPI, was " because of the

demands and opportunities for support presented. " 12

Recognizing the central importance of " health care outcomes, " both the

evaluation exercise and this broader examination of the issues have

purposely focused on concerns surrounding the qualitative issue of EPI

health care outcomes and effectiveness. However, it became readily apparent

in the evaluation of the Program that--due to the absence of base line data

on any sample of the recipients, let alone the additional need for a

comparable control group, and the control or monitoring of intervening

variables it was not really possible to proceed with any accurate or

verifiable determination of health care outcomes (i.e., to establish a

cause and effect relationship) for EPI.

This need to provide verifiable measurement of a program's health care

outcomes appears to be pervasively deficient throughout most health

programming directed to the Developing World. The implications of this

general deficiency to the specific measurement or determination of EPI

effectiveness, remains a serious one, and will be addressed more thoroughly

at later points in this report.

UNICEF'S GENERAL EPI STRATEGY AND STATED ACHIEVEMENTS

In a UNICEF sponsored research study on immunization coverage conducted in

Thailand in the mid 80's, the following general observation is made:

[The] immunization programme has been proven to be an efficient, and

relatively inexpensive method of disease prevention in both developing and

developed countries. In the last decade, we have seen an increase in

immunization usage, public acceptance, improved delivery techniques and

more stable vaccines. The more extensive use of vaccines has resulted in a

dramatic decrease of many leading communicable diseases in all parts of the

world. However, this condition is by no means true in developing countries

where most of the vaccine preventable diseases like diphtheria, pertussis,

neonatal tetanus, poliomyelitis and measles remain to be a serious health

menace among infants and children in these countries. " 13

The view as expressed here--during the early stages of this

project--provides a fair representation of the rationale behind UNICEF'S

resolve to proceed with its universal disease eradication drive, via

vaccine induced immunization. (It is of no passing interest that WHO and

UNICEF sponsored literature, such as above, now embody a new nomenclature,

in which one does not refer to preventable diseases, but more precisely

" vaccine preventable diseases " thus tending to convey the unsubstantiated

conclusion that such diseases are only preventable through the use of

vaccines.)

In UNICEF's Fourth Progress Report on this project issued in 1989, it was

affirmed that, " Impressive progress has been made towards the achievement

of Universal Child Immunization (UCI). Immunization coverage has been

increased and the incidence of immunization diseases reported has reduced. "

This achievement was reported as taking place despite such persistent

obstacles as: insufficient " awareness and knowledge among health officials

and community leaders; " inadequate " availability of vaccines and cold chain

in remote areas; " and the problem of " drop-out due to ignorance, distance,

and fear of side effects. "

FIELD OBSERVATIONS

On the basis of structured and semi-structured interviews in five

provinces, five districts, and nine villages visited, the following facts

came to light:

The EPI component objectives were comprehensively and successfully

implemented, exceeding the original numerical targets

EPI was reported as the " only activity that is implemented and recorded

entirely by government (health) officials "

All parents had been informed that: immunization was an effective, and

essential life-guarding measure, and although it could result in fever or a

minor rash for their infants, this should be expected as normal (a small

price to pay for the benefits received); and that otherwise the procedure

was very safe and should pose no cause for fear or alarm

The most commonly reported side effect of infant vaccinations was fever,

with village reports ranging from a low of 6% of infants immunized to

" 99%. " (Rashes were the second most commonly reported side effect)

Fever reducing drugs are either routinely administered to vaccinated

infants, or administered on request of parents (however, one village did

report the effective use of water instead of drugs to reduce fever), and

Sisaket province reported that " rare " cases of post-vaccination shock have

occurred, attributing this to vaccinal " overdose. " Surin province reported

that there were cases of post-vaccination shock in various other provinces,

but not in Surin. Such cases were attributed to the vaccine vial not being

" sufficiently shaken. "

CONTRA-INDICATIONS SCREENING

Evidence indicated that the EPI program did not incorporate adequate

measures for contraindications pre-screening and post-monitoring.

All infants received the vaccines regardless of their weight or nutritional

status (only one village indicated that vaccines were not given to infants

severely underweight, and only one province reported post-vaccination

monitoring of infants under 3 kg).

Actual nutritional status assessment does not appear to be conducted on

infants (excepting the body weight factor) before administering vaccination.

There did not appear to be any procedural requirements for checking family

histories to determine whether there existed any history of neurological

disorders before administering vaccination.

The official view historically held and still articulated by the World

Health Organization (WHO) is that both the provision of screening for

contraindications, and post operation monitoring for adverse reactions are

uncalled for in the context of Developing World EPI campaigns. The

underlying rationale has been that the life saving benefits of EPI so far

outweigh any risks, that attention to potential risk factors and the

potential for vaccine induced damage in vaccinates remains impracticable,

and thus a non-issue.14

Despite this unqualified optimism, according to information provided by

CIDA's Health and Population Directorate sector, the WHO effective October,

1990, instituted a policy for " adverse event monitoring " in Developing

World Immunization activities. A definitive policy statement on this issue

titled Monitoring of Adverse Events Following Immunization, has been

available since April 1991. (The implications of WHO's recognition of the

significance of this issue in setting UCI/EPI research, monitoring and

evaluation priorities should be apparent.)

It is thus important to point out that there is by no means a consensus on

this issue within the Bio-science community (including the inconsistencies

exhibited in the public pronouncements, and policies of the WHO). In one of

the most recent scholastic manuals available on immunization practice,

noted authority, Dick--Professor Emeritus of Pathology, London

University--provides the following cautions relative to the traditional

assumptions of the WHO:

Before considering immunization it must be determined that the disease in

question is of sufficient severity, frequency or other importance to

justify immunization against it. Furthermore, " if the infection is readily

treatable, there is seldom justification for immunization. "

" immunization is indicated only when the classic methods of control are

[demonstrably] impracticable or unsuccessful. "

Before any vaccine is introduced " there must be good evidence that the

vaccine is effective and relatively safe . . . Sufficient time has not yet

elapsed to predict with any certainty the durability of immunity with the

live virus vaccines, which are now in common use, such as poliomyelitis,

measles . . . [etc.] "

" The best type of active immunization follows a clinical or subclinical

natural infection. With many diseases this often gives lifelong protection

at little or no cost to the individual or to the community. "

The pre-immunization era declines in infectious diseases " should make one

careful in attributing changes in the epidemiology of some diseases to the

result of a specific treatment or immunization. " 15

He further confirms that in the following conditions, the EPI vaccine as

noted should not be administered. (Obviously pre-vaccine screening measures

must be in place in order to ensure that these guidelines are met.) Dick's

recommendations follow on Table A.

TABLE A -- GUIDLINES FOR CONTRAINDICATIONS SCREENING Diphtheria acute

febrile illness (fever)

Whooping Cough

(pertussis) acute febrile illness

a history of seizures, convulsions or cerebral irritation in the neonatal

period

any neurological defects

any severe local or general reaction to a previous dose of pertussis

" Children whose parents or siblings have a history of idiopathic epilepsy

or neurological defects require careful assessment as to the advisability

of imunization. "

Polio acute illness including diarrhoea, or other (OPV) acute intestinal

dysfunction

sever hypogammaglobulinaemia

anyone on corticosteroids or immunosuppressive therapy

Measles acute febrile illness

immune mechanism deficiencies

anyone on corticosteroids or immunosuppressive therapy

Hodgkin's disease and leukaemia, or other diseases of the lymphoid, or

mononuclear phagocytic (reticuloendothelial) system

Preliminary PHC and EPI research conducted for CIDA's Evaluation Division

indicates as well that vaccines should not be administered to children who

are suffering from malnutrition due to associated immunodeficiency problems

(of which--inter alia--chronic infections are symptomatic). However, the

official WHO position on this point is that " Fever, respiratory tract

infections, diarrhea, and malnutrition should not be considered as

contraindications to immunization. " This is based on the relationship

between immunodeficiency status and increased risk of natural infection.16,

17, 18 (For a cross-sampling of other reference sources which support a

counter-view to the WHO stance on immunodeficiency and contraindications to

vaccines, please see ref.18)

The Project's failure to address this issue--in a responsible manner--has

undoubtedly caused some very real harm, when only good was meant, as the

following shows.

A CASE HISTORY

Upon completing the briefing session with a large contingent of Surin

provincial and Northeast regional health officials--at which the chief

provincial spokesperson confirmed that although post-vaccination shock was

a problem in other provinces, there were no known cases being reported in

his province evaluation team members departed for their respective village

destinations. Upon entering the village of Kanjarong, in the Chom Phra

district (only 35 miles distant from the provincial capital) in company

with the UNICEF Integrated Services Project Monitor, we encountered and met

with the village Head Man and the Deputy Head Man.

In the course of the interview, the Deputy Head Man, with some intensity

explained that his own son had experienced what he considered as very

serious damage as a result of immunization. The Project Monitor and I

returned the following day, at which time we both interviewed the mother

and observed the affected child during the interview. As a result of this

more careful and thorough interview, the following facts of the case were

ascertained:

Up to the age of 3 months the infant had been breastfed. Breastfeeding was

terminated by the mother due to a diagnosed thyroid deficiency, per the

" doctor's " request. She subsequently began feeding him powdered milk,

supplemented by egg, meat, and white rice. The use of fresh fruit and

vegetables in the infants diet remained very marginal.

At the age of 8 months the infant was taken in for his final DPT (triple

antigen) vaccine. He almost immediately went into what was diagnosed and

described as a state of " shock, " for which he was duly treated by a

physician. As well, a whole series of serious problems began:

chronic sleeplessness

high fever

unbroken colds and runny nose continuing over several months

unbroken crying (except when held) for a period exceeding 2 months

in the eleven months following the vaccine (the child at time of inter-view

was I year 7 months) there appeared to be severely impaired weight and

growth developments.

Although cognizant that this case history could be construed (and in turn

dismissed) as a rare anecdotal occurrence that was only coincidental to the

administration of the triple antigen vaccine, after careful thought I've

decided to included it in some detail for three basic reasons:

I. evidence suggest that for multiple reasons--as noted throughout this

document--such adverse reactions are likely to be taking place at a

significantly greater level than is popularly believed;

II. a calm, intelligent and caring mother's direct experiential

observations and hindsight about her child represent a fully valid and

trustworthy source of information; and

III. overall, the clarity and force of the evidence was such that the

child's reaction was clearly more than a mere coincidence, and thus not

attributable to other direct causes. (As well there is clear evidence

suggesting that the occurrence and severity of adverse reactions to

vaccines--among infants--correlate proportionally to both lack of

breasffeeding, and Vitamin C deficiency (e.g., see refs. 17 & 18).

The following comments should be made with respect to points (a)-(e) above:

The evidence of unabated infections suggests general impairment of the

child's immune system, i.e., vaccine induced immune malfunction.

The unbroken crying (its unfortunate that children under the age of one

can't verbally explain the nature and extent of their distress) suggest the

possibility of permanent nervous system damage. (In observing the child

walk about, it was visibly evident that his general motor functions and

coordination were impaired.)

The reported growth stunting effect was also visibly obvious, as the child

appeared to be at most the size of a one year old. (In that impaired growth

is generally not identified in the literature as a vaccine related or

induced hazard, this condition may well have been principally related to

other factors bearing on the child's nutritional intake and or assimilative

capacities.) The mother reported that his weight at birth was 4 kilos (a

very heavy baby by Thai standards) and at 5 months, 9 kilos. At the time we

visited--though now I year and 2 months older--his weight was unchanged,

still at 9 kilos.

It is also worth noting that the mothers three month old grandson, who was

present during the interview, had been experiencing high fever, and

continuous colds since having received recent inoculations. Given that I

visited only 9 out of over 900 participating villages, and then only raised

this issue with a fraction of respondents, poses serious concern as to just

how widespread and serious the problem of adverse side effects is.

It is known for instance that when mass immunization programs were enforced

in Australia's Northern Territory among what was a generally malnourished

Aboriginal population (the most notable concern being Vitamin C deficiency)

death rates doubled, in some areas approaching 50 percent i.e., " Every

Second Child. " According to the author of a book by that title and veteran

physician to the Aboriginals A. Kalokerinos:

A health team would sweep into an area, line up all the Aboriginal babies

and infants and immunize them. There would be no examination no taking of

case histories, no checking on dietary deficiencies. Most infants would

have colds. No wonder they died Some would die within hours . . . Others

would suffer immunological insults and die later from pneumonia,

'gastroenteritis'or 'malnutrition'.19

In Northeastern Thailand, in the villages visited practically all mothers

were breastfeeding, and were to some extent including fresh garden

vegetables and fruit in their diets. This in turn provided a fair degree of

protection from the kind of severe reactions and mortality just noted among

Australian Aboriginals. Nonetheless, it is apparent that there still

remains a sizable number of malnourished. To quote C. Guthrie:

Malnutrition seems to be declining in the Northeast... Still, malnutrition

is widely prevalent. One does not need to go looking for it. In one school

.. . . in Don Luang, 50 percent of the children were suffering from one

level of malnutrition or another. I found it somewhat disturbing to find

that the objective expressed by most officials was restricted to the

eradication of 3rd degree malnutrition, in spite of the wide prevalence of

1st and 2nd degree malnutrition.20

It appears that the mass coverage obsession common to UCI and EPI, have run

roughshod over the repeated qualifications, and warnings that have been

issued against administering vaccines to inimunodeficient infants and

children, of which malnutrition is a prime indicator. The fact that a March

1988 Annual Report on this Project (p. 5) indicated that a WHO/UNICEF

review team found that EPI " drop out rates were high, because of the fear

of side effects as expressed by mothers, " suggests that the prevalence of

vaccine induced complications and morbidity in Northeast Thailand, may well

be more significant than heretofore thought. (The broader question and

implications of vaccine induced morbidity and mortality will be examined in

more detail, later in the report.)

VACCINE SCHEDULING

The rationale behind administering multiple vaccines and toxoids throughout

the first 14 week period of an infant's life (excepting measles) is that in

the first year of life--when the immune system is still relatively

immature--a child is considered more susceptible to most infectious

diseases. However, this view fails to admit the corollary that the immune

and nervous systems of infants, are immature thus making them potentially

more vulnerable to the toxic effects of vaccines and toxoids.

Nonetheless, the argument is commonly raised that vaccines must be

administered in accord with the recommended schedule, " (particularly in the

Developing World), as the risk of dangers is so marginal, and the dangers

of widespread and unchecked infectious diseases so great that the infant

must have the vaccines--or else. Of course this view is acceptable only

insofar as the multiple beliefs surrounding UCI/EPI are valid, i.e., that

there are no better disease preventative measures; that the presence of

such infections cannot be safely handled or treated; and that vaccines are

both highly effective and very safe.

The current WHO recommended schedule vaccination follows: At birth BCG

(Tuberculosis) and OPV-0 (Polio--Live Oral, Trivalent)

6 weeks DPT#L (Diphtheria Toxoid; Pertussis/Whooping Cough; and Tetanus

Toxoid) and OPV#L

10 weeks DPT#2 and OPV#2

14 weeks DPT#3 and OPV#3

9 months Measles

It is instructive to consider the experience of Japan in this regard. Delay

of DPT immunization until 2 years of age in Japan has resulted in a

dramatic decline in adverse side effects. In the period of 1970-1974, when

DPT vaccination was begun at 3 to 5 months of age, the Japanese national

compensation system paid out claims for 57 permanent severe damage vaccine

cases, and 37 deaths. During the ensuing six year period 1975-1980, when

DPT injections were delayed to 24 months of age, severe reactions from the

vaccine were reduced to a total of eight with three deaths. This represents

an 85 to 90 percent reduction in severe cases of damage and death. 21

Although it is obvious that conditions in Japan remain distinctive from

that of most Developing World countries, it must be noted that insofar as

susceptibility to infectious disease remains greater in lesser developed

countries, it clearly follows that susceptibility to vaccine damage will

also be proportionally greater. Thus the lesson from Japan carries a valid

message relative to the prevention of vaccine damage in Developing World

EPI campaigns.

IMMUNIZATION'S IMPACT IN THE DECLENSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Statistics indicate that over the life of this project, Thailand (and

presumably the Northeast region, for which direct figures were not

available) has exhibited some degree of declension in childhood infectious

diseases (excepting measles) for which immunization has--in recent

years--been made generally available. However, it must be borne in mind

that prima facie improvement in morbidity levels--in end of itself--falls

far short of proving any actual interventional cause and effect

relationship for EPI.

Direct discussions with the International Development Research Centre's

Health Sciences Division confirms that in selective primary health care

activities, such as EPI, there exists " no good base line data from which to

measure health care outcomes. SPHC (Selective Primary Health Care) programs

in the implementation of EPI appear to ignore this whole issue, " Due to the

strong and widely maintained assumption that interventions such as EPI

serve inextricably and directly as the basis for health improvement

outcomes, there has been a general failure since the inception of the first

vaccine programs to establish genuinely verifiable evidence for their long

term effectiveness, and safety. 22

The general nature of this problem in Selective Primary Health Care

activities is well expressed by prominent Medical Sociologist J.

on, when he says there has been a failure to " assess explicitly the

degree of validity and sufficiency of the evidence linking care structures

(facilities, personnel), and processes (what providers do, e.g., EPI) to

outcomes of care in general and to health outcomes in particular. " 23

Epidemiological science is largely predicated on the reality that changes

in morbidity and mortality in populations are necessarily linked to a whole

series of contributive factors. " (Noted authority Dick states that:

" Many infectious diseases can be prevented without immunization, because

once the natural history of the disease is understood, the source may be

eliminated or transmission prevented [e.g.,] . . . . When it was discovered

that cholera and typhoid epidemics were regularly transmitted by faecal

contamination of water, the provision of clean water supplies nearly

eradicated these diseases from many countries without recourse to

immunization. " )24 It is widely acknowledged that factors such as:

nutrition, sanitation, potable water; the natural and social environments

(e.g., agricultural practices, food supply, education and income), all play

vital roles in determining the onset, severity, and eradication of both

infectious and degenerative diseases. Diseases such as cholera and typhoid,

have been strongly linked to water and sanitation, whereas evidence

continues to accumulate that nutrition remains likely the most critical

determinant factor in the full range of infectious and degenerative human

diseases.25

The very fact that in this UNICEF project--as in many others--EPI is

implemented over a period of years in the midst of a whole series of other

natural and basal socioeconomic improvement measures, each having their own

critical impact on any population's health status (including epidemicity

levels) suggests that EPI could actually be playing a negligible or even a

negative role, and no one would really know the difference.

According to the recently completed comprehensive Program Evaluation of the

Canadian International Immunization Program--Phase 1, this poses a

situation in which the relative impact of expanded immunization programs on

mortality levels in the Developing World remain largely unsubstantiated. To

quote: " at present it appears that there is no conclusive evidence on the

impact of immunization on child mortality from all causes . . . It may be

that EPI's effect is merely to bring about " replacement mortality, " whereby

children . . . succumb to other diseases instead. The uncertainty over the

impacts of EPI remain a major question in PHC programming. " 26

In a similar vein, Debabar Banerji, Chairman of the Centre of Social

Medicine and Community Health at Jawaharlal Nehru University raises serious

concerns with the UNICEF sponsored Universal Childhood Immunization program

in his own nation. He suggests that:

If we turn to the epidemiological analysis of UCI-90 in India, we are

astonished to learn that such a gigantic program has been launched without

having even the most basic data on infectious diseases . . . Then how will

it be possible to determine the cost-effectiveness of the program?

Actually, there ought to have been much more detailed analysis. . . .

For example, with regard to disease levels and factors, he urges that very

basic questions should have been addressed before implementing UCI, such

as: . . . how different are the rates in different parts of the country and

what are the ecological, cultural, social and other factors which affect

the rates--through influencing the balance between the host, the parasite

[i.e., virus or microbe] and the environment. Information should have been

provided on what are the trends in the epidemiological behaviour of the

different diseases over a time period, what should be the epidemiological

strategy for intervention in the natural histories of the diseases, and so

on. Paying scant attention to such critical epidemiological considerations,

the crusaders of UCI-90 have opted in favor of saturation spraying with

" silver bullets " [vaccines]. Over and above this, there are also the

important questions of efficacy of the vaccines. . .

Administratively, the exponents of UCI-90 seem to indulge in collective

amnesia to wish the bitter experiences of major vertical [top down]

programs like the mass BCG Campaign, the National Malaria Eradication

Program, and the three [national] efforts at eradication of smallpox . . .

Also actively shunned are the many lessons from the failures of vertical

programs for trachoma, leprosy, filariasis, cholera, and sexually

transmitted diseases. " 27

INCOMPLETE STATISTICAL REPORTING

Selectively slanted and incomplete reporting of the true statistical

picture is not an infrequent problem in the promotive oriented reporting on

EPI impact data. For example, the following Tables B and C, were based on

data presented in Section 4.3 " Expanded Programme of Immunization, " in

UNICEF's Fourth Progress Report CUC/CIDA Development of Basic Services for

Children in Thailand, covering the period January--December, 1988.

Table B -- Immunization Coverage for Measles in Thailand Year of Coverage

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

Percentage Immunized 06

26

44

60

63

Table C -- Incidence of measles in Thailand Year 1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

Number 27,691

34,713

47,205

32,156

19,659

42,051

32,498

Case Rate Per 100,000 (57.1)

(70.2)

(93.7)

(62.2)

(37.1)

(78.1)

59.1)

The following comment is made with respect to the expansion of the measles

vaccination program, " . . . the immunization coverage for measles has

increased from 6 percent in 1984 to 63 percent in 1988, leading to a

reduction in measles prevalence from 93.7/100,000 in 1984 to 37.1/100,000

in 1986. "

What the report fails to indicate though is that although the 1986

inununization coverage of 44% had increased by 1987 to 60%, the measles

infection rate in the same period actually more than doubled, with an

increase from 37.1 to 87.1 per 100,000. It is also noteworthy that the

culminating maximum immunization coverage of 63% achieved in 1988,

correlates with a 1988 infection report rate of 59.1 /100,000--which in

fact poses higher level of measles infection than the 1982 reported

infection rate of 57.1 /100,000, which was a time when measles immunization

was not being provided in Thailand. (The higher per capita infection

rate--after five years of expanding coverage--obviously reflects very

negatively on the assumed efficacy of the vaccine, and may have been

deliberately obfuscated in the reporting. No evidence was seen to suggest

that the post-immunization increases in disease rates were attributable to

case reporting improvements.)

THE DEVELOPMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF UCI/EPI

Clearly, Universal Childhood Immunization stands in contradiction to the

strategically development based primary health care principles as embodied

in the Alma Ata Declaration. (The issue of intersectoral primary health

care versus selective medicine remains an area of major controversy. It

will be examined in considerable detail later in this paper). In fact,

Developing World analysts such as D. Banerji, forcefully contend that short

term, " top down " approaches to health care--such as EPI threaten to reverse

Alma Ata's historic gains for more self-directed and sustainable health

care. In his view the shifting emphasis toward selective medicine including

UCI/EPI:

Negates the principle of community participation and control as exemplified

in " bottom up " development

Accords resource allocations only to certain target groups, ignoring the

needs of the total family and community

Reinforces elitist authoritarian attitudes, thus increasing oppression.

Has a fragile basis in science

Displays questionable moral and ethical values, in which a questionable

commodity of foreign and elite interests, is promoted to and imposed on the

majority of the people.28

In his own words, the Universal Childhood Immunization initiative,

constitutes the efforts of ruling interests in Donor nations:

.. . . to hit out at the very core of the philosophy of primary health care

by imposing technocentric vertical programs against a few diseases in the

name of saving children . . .This movement not only tends to fragment a

health care system and take it away from a wider ecological, intersectoral,

and integrated approach, but it also actively hinders community

self-reliance and seriously erodes the democratic rights of the people to

participate in decisions which so vitally concern them. This is perhaps the

most malignant facet of the present efforts to impose specialized . . .

programs from outside, using social marketing techniques to sell them. " 29

Researchers like Rifkin and Walt maintain that interventions such as EPI,

are essentially based on the (now fading) view that human health is

dependent upon and arises from a force of elite professionals who hold

privileged knowledge--coupled with corresponding power and control--to

effect their disbursal of technocentrically contrived benefits, to

relatively ignorant and passive recipients.30 It goes without saying that

any programmed encouragement of this mind set--despite the very best of

intentions--constitutes an inimical force to those principles and processes

whereby intelligent self-development, and informed self-care can prevail.

In reference to the developmental implications of UCI/EPI, medical

sociologist L.J. Chetelat notes that:

Health professionals, by taking and promoting easily executed

interventions, such as immunization, create a demand for these programs and

raise expectations which are seldom realized.. SPHC by identifying specific

techniques (such as EPI) and strongly supporting them, diverts attention

and resources from the process of development, to highlighting specific

programs with exaggerated and often unpredictable outcomes. In reality,

technocratic and " instant " successes, put into danger the long slow process

that leads to sustained improvements. They are creating a climate of

short-term expediency, rather than long term change.31

IS IMMUNIZATION EFFECTIVENESS A CERTAINTY?

It can well be said that real " ignorance is not knowing, but knowing what

isn't so. " The question of whether vaccines in fact protect recipients from

the diseases for which they are given, might seem absurd on the face of it.

As already noted, when we closer examine the question of statistical

evidence for immunization's effectiveness, there remain significant

epidemiological uncertainties. The literature further reveals some critical

problems in data gathering, interpretation and reporting practices. These

basic concerns are succinctly summarized by Professor Gordon ,

recent head of the Department of Community Medicine at Glasgow University:

What kind of immunization is this for which success is being claimed?...

What kind of epidemiology is this which advocates immunization b excluding,

consideration of factors other than immunization? . . . " at kind of

editorial policy is this which publishes incomplete data and promotes far

reaching claims about the efficacy of immunization, but refuses to publish

collateral data questioning this efficacy? 32

We are thus confronted with an unenviable situation where in the general

absence of verifiable multifactored and controlled studies, EPI remains

today--scientifically speaking--as a basically unproven program

intervention. In fact, there is a substantive and growing body of data that

call into serious question the soundness and effectiveness of mass

immunization programs. This data not only calls into question EPI

effectiveness, but further details adverse side effects and potential long

term dangers of this widely implemented medical intervention.

EARLY THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS RE-EXAMINED

In order to better grasp the issue of vaccine effectiveness, it would prove

helpful for us to go back to the early theoretical foundation upon which

current vaccination and disease theories originated. In simplest terms, the

theory of artificial immunization postulates that by giving a person a mild

form of a disease, via the use of specific foreign proteins, attenuated

viruses, etc., the body will react by producing a lasting protective

response e.g., antibodies, to protect the body if or when the real disease

comes along.

This primal theory of disease prevention originated by Ehrlich--from

the time of its inception--has been subject to increasing abandonment by

scientists of no small stature. For example not long after the Ehrlich

theory came into vogue, W.H. Manwaring, then Professor of Bacteriology and

Experimental Pathology at Leland Stanford University observed:

I believe that there is hardly an element of truth in a single one of the

basic hypothesis embodied in this theory. My conviction that there was

something radically wrong with it arose from a consideration of the almost

universal failure of therapeutic methods based on it . . . Twelve years of

study with immuno-physical tests have yielded a mass of experimental

evidence contrary to, and irreconcilable with the Ehrlich theory, and have

convinced me that his conception of the origin, nature, and physiological

role of the specific 'antibodies' is erroneous.33

To afford us with a continuing historical perspective of events since

Manwaring's time, we can next turn to the classic work on auto-immunity and

disease by Sir MacFarlane Burnett, which indicates that since the middle of

this century the place of antibodies at the centre stage of immunity to

disease has undergone " a striking demotion. " For example, it had become

well known that children with agammaglobulinaemia--who consequently have no

capacity to produce antibody--after contracting measles, (or other zymotic

diseases) nonetheless recover with long-lasting immunity. In his view it

was clear " that a variety of other immunological mechanisms are functioning

effectively without benefit of actively produced antibody. " 34

The kind of research which led to this a broader perspective on the body's

immunological mechanisms included a mid-century British investigation on

the relationship of the incidence of diphtheria to the presence of

antibodies. The study concluded that there was no observable correlation

between the antibody count and the incidence of the disease. " " The

researchers found people who were highly resistant with extremely low

antibody count, and people who developed the disease who had high antibody

counts.35 (According to Don de Savingy of IDRC, the significance of the

role of multiple immunological factors and mechanisms has gained wide

recognition in scientific thinking. [For example, it is now generally held

that vaccines operate by stimulating non-humeral mechanisms, with antibody

serving only as an indicator that a vaccine was given, or that a person was

exposed to a particular infectious agent.])

In the early 70's we find an article in the Australian Journal of Medical

Technology by medical virologist B. (of the Australian Laboratory of

Microbiology and Pathology, Brisbane) which reported that although a group

of recruits were immunized for Rubella, and uniformly demonstrated

antibodies, 80 percent of the recruits contracted the disease when later

exposed to it. Similar results were demonstrated in a consecutive study

conducted at an institution for the mentally disabled. --in commenting

on her research at a University of Melbourne seminar--stated that " one must

wonder whether the . . . decision to rely on herd immunity might not have

to be rethought.36

As we proceed to the early 80s, we find that upon investigating unexpected

and unexplainable outbreaks of acute infection among " immunized " persons,

mainstream scientists have begun to seriously question whether their

understanding of what constitutes reliable immunity is in fact valid. For

example, a team of scientist writing in the New England Journal of Medicine

provide evidence for the position that immunity to disease is a broader

bio-ecological question then the factors of artificial immunization or

serology. They summarily concluded: " It is important to stress that

immunity (or its absence) cannot be determined reliable on the basis of

history of the disease, history of immunization, or even history of prior

serologic determination.37

Despite these significant shifts in scientific thinking, there has

unfortunately been little actual progress made in terms of undertaking

systematically broad research on the multiple factors which undergird human

immunity to disease, and in turn building a system of prevention that is

squarely based upon such findings. It seems ironic that as late as 1988

must still raise the following basic questions. " Why doesn't medical

research focus on what factors in our environment and in our lives weaken

the immune system? Is this too simple? too ordinary? too undramatic? Or

does it threaten too many vested interests . . ? " 38

ARTIFICIALLY INDUCED IMMUNITY--REALITY OR DELUSION?

Physiologist, S.K. Claunch raises an reasonable postulate when he suggests

that the body's capacity to initiate a " vigorous reaction " (i.e., the acute

processes of elimination associated with viral and infectious diseases)

hinges essentially on its level of vitality, and thus such reactions are

most commonly found in children. In contrast, it is generally acknowledged

that the very feeble and or chronically diseased--who have significantly

lower vital energy levels--tend to remain relatively free from such acute

reactions. This observation in turn lead him to express the concept that:

If any child has its vitality lowered and its health impaired to the degree

that it is no longer strong enough to develop an acute disease, it is, for

the time being, at least " immune. " This is the exact clinical picture one

observes when serums, vaccines and " biologicals " are shot into a child . .

.. its vitality is so lowered that it is no longer healthy enough to protest

or react against them. So long as its vitality stays down, it will be

" immune. " 39

A number of detractors have legitimately raised the question of how the

injection of foreign disease matter into the human system can constitute a

legitimate approach to the sustenance of human health. After all, we don't

seek warmth of icebergs, is there thus any more logic in seeking health

from substances which are intimately associated with disease and death? The

articulate view of physiologist H.M. Shelton is that:

To interfere with the all-important composition of the blood in the

haphazard manner serologists do, results in incalculable disturbance of its

physiological equilibrium . . . health depends, not upon killing bacteria

[ & viruses] but upon building up the soundness . . . integrity [and]

functional vigor . . . of our own tissues and organs. . . . Normal

resistance can be achieved only by use of the same means by which it was

originally built and maintained.

Nature makes no mistakes and violates no laws. She is uniformly governed by

fixed principles and all her actions harmonize with ... [nature's

governing] laws . . . The best, indeed the only method ofpromoting public

health is to teach people the laws of nature and.. how to preserve health.

Immunization programs are futile, and are based on the delusion that the

law of cause and effect can be annulled Vaccines and serums are employed as

substitutesfor right living; they are intended to supplant obedience to the

laws of life. Such programs are slaps in the face of law and order. " 40

AN HISTORIC OVERVIEW OF THE BACTERIAL/VIRALTHEORY OF DISEASE CAUSATION

In order to provide some further background to the reader, this section

will briefly recount some of the most significant observations of earlier

scientists on the broader question of what is the actual role bacteria and

viruses play in human infectious disease. The debate on this

issue--although an old one remains highly relevant and timely in that the

whole edifice of Western selective medicine, both preventive and

therapeutic, hinges upon a correct perspective on and resolution of the

question.

Indeed, it remains remarkable that whether we go to recent or more distant

history, we find that fundamentally critical scientific discoveries and

observations which serve to clarify these issues, and point in a more

appropriate direction, continue--at least in practice--to be largely

unknown and or ignored. (Some researchers would suggest that this failure

arises because such discoveries--if genuinely applied--would significantly

curb what amounts to annual income totaling multiple billions of dollars in

the exploitation of human disease.) However, it is apparent that the

factors underlying this failure are in reality much broader and more complex.

Due to the need for brevity, only two cases of historic significance will

be considered. Earlier in this century, C.E. Rosenow of the Mayo Biological

Laboratories began a series of experiments in which he took distinctive

bacterial strains from a number of different disease sources and placed

them in one culture of uniform media. In time the distinctive strains all

became one class. By repeatedly changing cultures, he could individually

modify bacterial strains making them some harmless or " pathogenic " and in

turn reverse the process. He concluded that the critical factor allowing

demonstration of the polymorphic nature of bacteria was their environment

and the food they lived upon. These discoveries were first published in the

year 1914 in the Journal of Infectious Disease. " 41

Rosenow's work was corroborated and expanded upon about two decades later

by R.R. Rife, developer of the Universal Microscope which was developed

concurrent with RCA's initial marketing of the electron microscope. Rife's

alternative was a 5,682 component, 150,000 power (60,000 diameters of

magnification) instrument which made live bacteria visibly " clear as a cat

on your lap. " This microscope was a light transmitting instrument with a

resolution of 31,000 diameters (traditionally electron microscopes had

resolutions of up to 25,000 diameters) which overcame the chief weakness of

the electron scope, i.e., the inability to view living cells structures and

bacterial and viral organisms in their unaltered living state.(An

alternative was required, as living matter when viewed under the electron

scope, becomes altered and distorted due to bombardment by a virtual

hailstorm of electrons, with such distortions increasing proportionally

with the intensity of magnification. Consequently, the extremely high

magnification levels found in the latest electron microscopes actually

serve to exacerbate this major flaw.)

Modern microscopy texts suggest that with light microscopes it is

impossible to obtain extremely high magnifications of objects and still

retain visual clarity. For example Novikoff and Holtzman affirm that in

such instruments a point is reached after which the image is " increasingly

blurred and nothing is gained by further magnification. Thus, light

microscopes are rarely used at magnifications greater than . . . 1500 X. " 42

However, Rife's invention with its 14 separate crystal quartz lenses and

prisms, was able to bend and to polarize light in such a way that a

specimen could be illuminated by extremely narrow portions of the spectra,

and even by a single light frequency. This combined with the shortening of

projection distance between prisms, and other innovative technical features

permitted high resolutions without distortion at extremely high

magnifications, never before or since attained in light microscopy.43

Rife showed that by altering the environment and food supply, friendly

bacteria such as colon bacillus could be converted into varied " pathogenic "

bacteria. For example, Rife also observed that bacillus coli could in time

be modified into the bacterial agent associated with typhus, and the

process actually reversed. In Rife's words:

In reality, it is not the bacteria themselves that produce the disease, but

we believe it is . . . the unbalanced cell metabolism of the human body

that in actuality produce the of disease. We also believe if the metabolism

of the human body is perfectly balanced . . . it is susceptible to no

disease.44

This observation closely parallels is Carrel's earlier research at the

Rockefeller Institute where he was able to control the rates and levels of

infectious disease mortality among mice. Beginning with the standard diet

he observed a corresponding death rate of 52 percent. By making specific

dietary improvements he was able to reduce mortality rates downward to 32

percent, then 14 percent, and finally to a rate of 0.45

Not too long after Rife's and Carrel's reported observations, scientist

Rene Dubos (also at the Rockefeller Institute) reaffirmed their open and

direct challenge to the conventional thinking and practice of the

scientific community at large. He suggested that the presumed relationship

between microbes and the onset of human disease has been " so oversimplified

that it rarely fits the facts of disease. Indeed it corresponds almost to a

cult . . . undisturbed by inconsistencies and not too exacting about

evidence. " He expanded upon this view in suggesting that we need to

objectively account for the fact that extremely virulent:

.. . . pathogenic agents [i.e., bacterial and viral micro-organisms]

sometimes can persist in the tissues without causing disease, and at other

times can cause disease even in the presence of specific antibodies. We

need also to explain why microbes supposed to be non-pathogenic often start

proliferating in an unrestrained manner if the body's normal physiology is

upset. . . .

During the first phase of the germ theory the property was regarded as

lying solely within the microbes themselves. Now virulence is coming to be

thought of as ecological . . . This ecological concept is not merely an

intellectual game; it is essential to a proper formulation of the problem

of microbial diseases and even to their control " 46

Indeed, Dubos--in time--came to voice the conclusion that " Viruses and

bacteria are not the cause of disease, there is something else. " In his

classic work Mirage of Health, he states " The world is obsessed by the fact

that poliomyelitis can kill and maim . . . unfortunate victims every year.

But more extraordinary is the fact that millions upon millions of young

children become infected by polio virus, yet suffer no harm from the

infection. " 47 This view closely corresponds to the oft quoted conclusion

arrived at in later life by R. Virchow (popularly reputed as father of the

" germ theory " ) when he stated, " If I could live my life over again, I would

devote it to proving that germs seek their natural habitat, diseased

tissues, rather than being the cause of disease. "

Since Dubos' time, researchers have estimated that the quantity of symptom

free exposure to viruses out number clinical illnesses by at least one

hundred-fold.48 This conclusion is based on the " high proportion of adults

who have virus-neutralizing substances in their serum and the number who,

during an epidemic, excrete virus without becoming ill.49

Further corroborative conclusions have been recently reached by some

prominent scientists in their critical examination of the popular view that

Human Immuno-deficiency Virus (HIV) is the key, if not the singular cause

of the Acquired Immuno-deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Evidence is in that the

popularized view that HIV causes AIDS is far more a political necessity,

than a genuine scientific conclusion. (Although the observed action and

effects of viruses, and retroviruses--such as HIV--do in fact significantly

differ, what is being called into question is the validity of labeling

microbes--of whatever form--as the key and or sole " cause " for disease, or

as in this case of acquired immunodeficiency.)

Duesberg (Professor of Molecular Biology at the University of Calif.-

Berkeley; considered by many to be the world's leading expert on

retroviruses; and Nobel Prize candidate for his work in discovering

oncogenes in viruses) provides compelling evidence that lifestyle based

factors serve as the primal determinants in the evolution of the 20 plus

neoplastic and degenerative diseases that are now associated with AIDS.

Employing his own research--complemented by 196 cited references--an

article entitled " HIV and AlDs: Correlation but not causation, " was

published in 1989 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

USA. This article indicates that " Free " HIV virus (Free meaning that the

retrovirus is already part of the genome) is not detectable in most cases

of AIDS; " " Pure HIV does not cause AIDS upon experimental infection of

chimpanzees or accidental infection of healthy humans; " and

" Epidemiological surveys indicate that the annual incidence of AIDS [to be

understood as a condition symptomized by various secondary infections for

which natural immunity has been lost] depends critically on non-viral

[related] risk factors . . . defined by lifestyle, health, and country of

residence. "

In an interview published nearly five years later Dr. Duesberg is more

convinced than ever that the HIV retrovirus is not the cause of AIDS, or of

the mortality associated with AIDS. Some of the key points he makes in this

important interview follow:

There are roughly seven and a half million people world wide who are known

carriers of HIV, and who continue to remain free of the immune deficiency

symptoms associated with AIDS, and there's not one authenticated case

" where you get infected today and get a disease. . . years later . . .

infectious agents work immediately or never. "

HIV has been found to be totally absent in the system of over 4,600 persons

diagnosed with AIDS, so to save political face the US Centers for Disease

Control have been forced of late to give such cases a new name i.e.,

" idiopathic CD 4 Iymphocytopenia. "

There are a million Americans with HIV and their T cells are normal,

indeed, " HIV is one of the most harmless viruses you could possibly have.

It never claims more than one in 1,000 cells every other day " during which

time your body replaces " at least 30 out of 1,000 " cells.

AIDS is not an infectious disease, but rather arises from " party swinger

lifestyles " that includes: the widespread and abundant use of various

immune- depleting drugs both legal and illegal such as cocaine, alcohol,

marijuana, amphetamines, aphrodisiacs, amyl or butyl nitrites (poppers),

combined with correlated conditions of malnutrition, inadequate sleep, and

poor hygiene.

Another key cause of AIDS and the mortality arising from it is medical

treatment in itself, viz. AZT has become " AIDS by prescription " and design.

In other words in the US alone 200,000 persons (most of whom have normal

health) who've tested positive for HIV antibodies, are given 250 mg of AZT

every six hours. This highly toxic drug destroys bone marrow, as well as

red blood cells thus precipitating cellular oxygen starvation destroys

white blood cells; causes anemia, weight loss, muscle loss, nausea, and

worsening immune system deficiency coupled with the ensuing infectious

diseases commonly associated with AIDS, and finally death. (The very same

sequence of rapid physiological deterioration, immune deficiency and

infections has been documented in healthy persons who were tested positive

for HIV, and quickly submitted to medical treatment, but were later

confirmed as false positives.)50

Bio medical scientist and AIDS researcher ph Sonnabend speaks of " . . .

the failure of our scientific and medical institutions to have provided an

even rudimentary understanding of the pathogenesis of this disease in the

eight years since its first description, let alone to have developed

interventions...that might significantly alter its course. " His well

researched conclusions include the view that " The association of HIV

seropositivity with AIDS could . . . derive from the possibility that the

expression of HIV (and consequent seroconversion) is an effect, rather than

a cause of AIDS. . . " 51

In summary, if we retum to Koch's 19th century postulates of the

" Germ Theory, " viz. in order to cause disease particular " bacterium: " a)

must be found in every case of the disease; must never be found apart

from the disease; and c) must consistently produce the same disease as that

manifested by the body from which the disease related germs were taken; we

find that in reality each postulate has been disproved time and again by

varied experience and experimental data.52

Nonetheless, it appears that to this day there remains only a marginal

acknowledgment or practical recognition that it is the condition of the

body-mind complex and its internal and external environments, which are the

principal determinants of the nature, prevalence and role of bacteria,

viruses, and even retroviruses.

THE BACTERIAL/VIRALVERSUS THE CELLULAR/ECOLOGICALTHEORY OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE

As a result of the re discovery of many of these earlier scientific

investigations, as well as more recent observations in molecular biology,

there has arisen among more independent scientists and primary health

practitioners a new concept that has been coined as the cellular theory of

infectious disease. This seemingly more logical and updated view, poses a

serious challenge to the present unquestioned emphasis on supporting mass

selective medicine approaches (including artificial immunization) in the

Developing World.

The traditional Bacterial--Viral and the emerging Cellular--Ecological

theories of disease are contrasted in the table which follows. The

practical acceptance of the cellular theory as delineated would entail a

substantive shift away from both preventive and therapeutic interventions

which are heavily predicated on Western selective medicine, i.e., vaccines

and drugs, and toward fundamental health improvement measures such as sound

nutrition, potable water, sanitation and overall enhancement of the human

physical and social environments.53

Considerable experimental, historical and epidemiological evidence supports

the cellular ecological theory, as outlined in Table D.

TABLE D

The evidence points to mass inoculation against polio as the cause of most

remaining cases of the disease . . . there is an ongoing debate among the

immunologists regarding the . . . killed virus vs. live virus vaccine.

Supporters of the killed virus vaccine maintain that it is the presence of

live virus organisms in the other product that is responsible for thepolio

cases that . . . appear. Supporters of the live virus type argue that the

killed virus vaccine offers inadequate protection and actually increases

the susceptibility (to polio) of those vaccinated. . . . I believe that

both factions are right, and that use of either of the vaccines will

increase not diminish the possibility that your child will contract the

disease.98

Thirteen scientists recently concluded that: vaccine failures in the major

Oman polio epidemic could not be explained by failures in the cold chain,

nor on suboptimum vaccine potency; the efficacy of OPV in inducing " humoral

immunity " was lower than expected; and primary reliance on routine polio

immunization may be " inadequate " to achieve the goal of eradicating polio

by the year 2000. (They also noted similar paralytic polio epidemics in

other highly vaccinated populations,99 e.g., the Gambia, Brazil, and Taiwan.)

Data on Pertussis (Whooping Cough)

V. Fulginiti, Chairman of the American Academy of Paediatrics Committee on

Infectious Diseases made this incisive observation:

Despite more than 30 years of experience with pertussis immunization, the

reasons for recovery from the acute infection and subsequent immunity, are

still uncertain. It is known that second attacks are rare following natural

disease. It is also known that 45-95% of recipients of pertussis vaccine

are susceptible to pertussis up to 12 years later . . . we do not

understand the immunologic mechanisms involved in resistance to infection

after natural disease or immunization.

Is pertussis vaccine effective? . . . prior to the widespread use

ofpertussis vaccine, both the incidence of pertussis and the case-fatality

ratio declined. A 50-fold reduction in incidence and an 84% reduction in

case-fatality were recorded in Great Britain in the years between 1947 and

1972. . . . In England, protection provided by vaccines prior to 1968 was

meager; no greater than 20% protection was noted. . . . Britain is in the

position of advocating use of a vaccine for which there are not hard data.100

G.T. 's observations as published in the British Medical Journal

indicated that " of 8,092 cases of whooping cough, 2,940 (36%) were fully

immunized, while only 2,424 (30%) were definitely not immunized. " 101

A Medical Tribune Report (January 10, 1979) details an outbreak of whooping

cough in which 46 out of 85 fully immunized children contracted the

disease.102 (the reason that the other 39 did not contract the disease

could have been related to any number of predisposing factors).

Ekanem's earlier noted research (Table IX) , reveals an increase of 21

percent in the number whooping cough cases by the end of the three year

period following implementation of an Expanded Program of Immunization in

Nigeria.103

Data on Tetanus Toxoid and Immune Globulin

Neustaedter indicates that " Tetanus seems to be nearly eliminated from the

United States, primarily because of good hygiene and proper wound

management. " His research suggests that in the period of 1982-1984 in the

US, there were a total of nine tetanus cases among both children and

adolescents, in which there were no deaths.104 Whereas Coumoyer's research

points to " contaminated umbilical stump infections " as a principal cause of

tetanus in the Developing World.105 Such infections can be effectively

rectified through providing appropriate information and training to

traditional birth attendants.

Both Cournoyer and indicate that there have been some reports of

lock jaw death in properly inoculated individuals.106 & 107 Additionally

Cournoyer suggests that " Evidence in support of the (tetanus toxoid)

vaccine comes from epidemiologic studies which are by nature controversial,

and which do not satisfy the criteria for scientific proof.108

According to the data contained in Table XVII, in the Dominican Republic

the incidence of tetanus among children actually increased in the two year

period following administration of tetanus toxoid. Table XVIII indicates

that in the same country, the rate of neonatal tetanus--among mothers

underwent an increase in the year following administration of tetanus

toxoid.109

WHO SMALLPOX ERADICATION SUCCESS RECONSIDERED

Although smallpox is apparently now accorded to the history books, it will

be necessary to re-examine the issue of this disease having been

universally eradicated, with particular reference to the WHO eradication

campaign. An honest look at this question is of considerable importance, as

the current worldwide UCI-EPI program gains much of its legitimacy and

inspiration from this widely acclaimed success story.

A strong challenge to this now popular view, is reflected in the

post-campaign findings of medical researchers like Buttram and Hoffman:

Most people probably credit the smallpox vaccine with playing the major

role in recent eradication of smallpox throughout the world, but let us

examine the facts. In the article 'Vaccines a Future in Question,'

statistics showed that less than 10 percent of children in developing

countries have received vaccines.

They went on to comment that with this level of coverage, the WHO campaign

was not a real factor in the eradication. Data obtained in their broad

based research also led them to conclude that " mass smallpox vaccination

was not necessary for the eradication of smallpox.110

In further examining this question from a longer historical perspective, it

became readily apparent that the WHO claim did not at all square with the

earlier data, i.e., historical smallpox eradication efforts. If we go back

as far as the last century, we discover that Creighton's independent

research findings as published in the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia

Britannica, strongly contradict the effectiveness of mass smallpox

immunization programs. A few revealing excerpts follow:

.. . . in Bavaria in 1871 of 30,742 cases 29,429 were in vaccinated persons,

or 95.7 percent.

Notwithstanding the fact that Prussia was the best re-vaccinated country in

Europe, its mortality from smallpox in the epidemic of 1871 was higher

(69,839) than any other Northern state.

According to a competent statistician (A. Vogt), the death-rate from

smallpox in the German army, in which all recruits are re-vaccinated, was

60 percent more than among the civil population of the same age . . .

although re-vaccination is not obligatory among the latter.

It is often alleged that the unvaccinated are so much inflammable material

in the midst of the community, and that smallpox begins among them and

gathers force so that it sweeps even the vaccinated before it. Inquiry into

the facts has shown that at Cologne in 1870 the first unvaccinated person

attacked by smallpox was the 174th in order of time, at Bonn the same year

the 42d, and at Liegnitz in 1871 the 225th.111

As we move on into the earlier part of this century we find the same dismal

picture of increased susceptibility correlated with increased vaccination

coverage. Dettman and Kalokerinos describe a visit they paid to the

Philippines about 15 years ago:

.. . . We were fortunate enough to address their own medical (and) health

officials where we reminded them of the incidence of smallpox in formerly

" immunized " Filipinos. We invited them to consult their own medical records

and asked them to correct us if our own facts and figures disagreed. No

such correction has been forthcoming, and we can only conclude that between

1918-1919 there were 112,549 cases of smallpox notified, with 60,855

deaths. Systematic (mass) vaccination started in 1905, and since its

introduction case mortality increased alarmingly. Their own records comment

that " The mortality is hardly explainable. " 112

Speaking at a 1973 environmental conference in Brussels, Professor

Dick admitted that in recent decades, 75 percent of those that have

contracted smallpox in Britain, have had prior a history of vaccination. In

that " only 40% " of children were vaccinated (and at most 10 percent of

adults), such figures clearly indicate that the vaccinated--as in the much

earlier historical record--continue to show a higher tendency to contract

the disease. Dick also admitted that smallpox had been eradicated in

certain tropical countries without mass vaccination.113 (Table VIII reveals

that in the 16 year period preceding the year the WHO eradication campaign

was launched--38 additional countries had ceased to report any smallpox

cases.)114

A. Hutchison writing in the Journal of the Royal Society in 1974, referred

to the smallpox vaccines " lack of potency " and the inadequacies of other

measures for containment, in his words, " I have given details of the

various outbreaks of smallpox in Britain and where they were diagnosed.

These clearly indicate that the (preventive) measures are most ineffective.115

An article in the New Scientist indicates that " The smallpox family of

viruses is genetically unstable, " and that new viral strains which threaten

the " WHO smallpox eradication programme, could emerge anywhere.116 It is

thus of interest that in a 1980 article in the Australasian Nurses Journal,

Dettman and Kalokerinos pointed out that electron-microscopy cannot

distinguish between the various " poxviruses.117 (According to D, de Saving

of IDRC, as of 1990 DNA sequencing can make the distinquishingment. What is

not known though, is whether this has any beating on the reporting of the

various " pox " diseases worldwide.) This fact led them to raise a vitally

significant question " as to whether smallpox may be declared conquered,

(it's estimated that only 10 percent of the world population actually

received the vaccine) with the possibility of it masquerading under the

guise of a similar pox. " Their line of evidence and reasoning is summarily

stated:

.. . . we claim that if the evidence is honestly evaluated that smallpox has

actually been prolonged and that the so called protective vaccinations

actually put the recipient at risk from . . . the disease itself.

Authorities now realize this and the 'top world' countries are making

vociferous protests about third world countries continuing use of smallpox

vaccination because (a) suddenly it has become recognized that it is an

extremely dangerous procedure, (To give some idea of the vaccine's dangers,

it was reported--in the late sixties--that annually, roughly 3,000 children

were experiencing varying degrees of brain damage due to the smallpox

vaccine; and according to G. Kiftel in 1967, smallpox vaccination damaged

the hearing of 3,296 children in West Germany, of which 71 became totally

deaf.117) and ( it has now been conquered. The ultimate in ingenuity. . .

..118

In turning to recognized textbooks on human virology and vertebrate viruses

we find that attention has been given since 1970 to a disease called

" monkeypox, " which is said to be " clinically indistinguishable from

smallpox. " Cases of this disease have been found in Zaire, Cameroon,

Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone (by May 1983, 101 cases

have been reported). It is observed that " . . . the existence of a virus

that can cause clinical smallpox is disturbing, and the situation is being

closely monitored. " 119 (For a highly detailed account of the history of

this disease and efforts to eradicate it, which further corroborates these

observations, see, Razzell P., The Conquest of Smallpox, Caliban Books,

United Kingdom, 1977.)

VACCINE ASSOCIATED DANGERS--GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Another basic issue that has never been raised in the programming, or

evaluation contexts of Official Development Assistance supported mass

immunization, is the requirement for effective monitoring and research on

potential vaccinal adverse effects. The issue of vaccine dangers and damage

is obviously a rather unpleasant subject that no one really enjoys thinking

or talking about. In fact it appears to have been totally ignored in both

the planning and execution phases of Canada's International Immunization

Programme(CIIP). Furthermore, the recently completed Qperational Review of

CIIP 1986--1991, which according to its sub-title was supposed to address

inter alia " . . . lessons learned in the first three years, " failed to even

raise the two very fundamental issues of vaccine effectiveness, and vaccine

damage.120

In special PHC-EPI research conducted for the CIDA Evaluation Division, the

conclusion was reached that the extensive literature written on the subject

of immunization, adverse reactions and contra indications, points clearly

to the reality that " massive immunization programs carry with them a number

of very real risks and hazards.121

According to information recently provided by CIDA's Health and Population

Directorate the World Health Organization as of October, 1990 has

instituted a policy for " adverse event monitoring " in Developing World

Immunization activities. A definitive policy statement on this issue titled

Monitoring

of Adverse Events Following Immunization, is apparently available as of

April 1991. The implications of VMO's recognition of the significance of

this issue to the setting of public policy priorities for EPI research,

monitoring and evaluation should be apparent. In order to provide some

background on why the WHO is now taking these measures, a few critical

observations follow.

In recognition of potential vaccine dangers, Karzon of the Vanderbilt

University School of Medicine raises important policy considerations with

respect to mass immunization programs in the Editorials section of the New

England Journal of Medicine.

.. . . there are two compelling reasons for reinspection of the process

offormulating and implementing our immunization program: the emergence of

new societal considerations and responsibilities; and the need for a fuller

public disclosure of the costs of disease prevention . . . we as a society

have not recognized and accepted all the costs . . . costs measured not

only in dollars spent or saved, but also as adverse biologic reactions.

Literally no drug or procedure used in medicine is risk free. Immunizing

antigens, originating from complex biological materials or arising as

genetically attenuated live agents, have their own peculiar endogenous

hazards, Complications . . . are particularly apt to be visible in mass

immunization campaigns. . . . The quality of the data base for national

decisions is critical because any vaccine recommendation carries such a

vast Potentialfor harm or good.122

It is unfortunate that UNICEF EPI field reports tend to dismiss the

concerns raised by " targeted " locals to the issue of vaccine damage, as

based on misinformation provided by unreliable local health staff, or the

ignorance of fearful mothers, both of whom need re-education. For instance

a recent UNICEF annual project report in discussing EPI stated, " A

WHO-UNICEF team found that drop out rates were high because of the fear of

side effects as expressed by mothers, (and) misinformation about

contraindications . . . as communicated by health workers. . . . As a

result, increased attention is being directed toward health education. . .

.. " 123

To say the least, it seems incongruous that this issue is paternalistically

ignored as an insignificant concern raised by the misinformed and the

ignorant, when Canadian citizens are being alerted by the media that the

Canadian Government is expected to announce " disaster relief " to families

" of vaccine damaged children. " 124 This relatively recent report suggests

that vaccine damage is likely more pervasive a problem than is generally

acknowledged or believed. In fact, it appears that chronic under-reporting

of vaccine-induced morbidity, disability, and mortality appears to be the

norm. Probably the most erudite scholar who has thoroughly investigated the

issue of vaccine hazards, is Sir Graham . As Honorary Lecturer in the

Department of Bacteriology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical

Medicine, the following observations are excerpted from an earlier lecture

series delivered at that school.

The risks attendant in use of vaccines and sera are not as well recognized

as they should be. Indeed our knowledge of them is still too small, and the

incomplete knowledge we have is not widely disseminated.. a very small

proportion [of the actual numbers of vaccine accidents] . . . have been

described in the medical literature of the world.

.. . . a large number of accidents--I suspect the majority--have never been

reported in print, either through fear of compensation claims, or of giving

a weapon to antivaccinationists . . . I have come to the conclusion that no

vaccine or antiserum can be regarded as completely safe . . . no vaccine or

antiserum that has yet been used has been free from complications or

accidents . . . [with respect to assessing the " degree of possible danger "

he indicates that] Unless both the numerator and the denominator are known,

quantitative assessments may fall wide of the true mark. Moreover, the

risk, even for a single vaccine, is not uniform. It varies, among other

things, with the immunological status of the population concerned..

The inherent danger of all vaccination procedures should be a deterrent to

their unnecessary or unjustifiable use. Vaccination is far too often

employed, especially in the developing countries . . . and should not be

used as an [instead] excuse from applying the well tried standard methods

for the prevention of infectious disease. Most important is it to realize

the potential dangers of mass immunization. In such an operation time does

not permit an inquiry into the suitability of each individual subject for

vaccination.125

A strong echo of 's conclusion that vaccine damage is chronically

under reported, is found in the official minutes of the 15th session of the

US Panel of Review of Bacterial Vaccines and Toxoids with Standards and

Potency.

Many physicians are not cognizant of the importance of reporting untoward

reactions, or may be unaware of their clinical features. Further, both

physicians and manufacturers have been held liable for damage suits by

patients who may suffer adverse effects from established vaccines. All of

these factors undoubtedly discourage reporting; without some other form of

surveillance, definition of the rates and significance of untoward

reactions to current and future vaccines cannot be ascertained.126

H.S. Martland, former Chief Medical Examiner for Essex County New York,

describes how the above unawareness actually translates into practice:

Deaths from brain and spinal cord diseases (poliomyelitis, encephalitis,

and meningitis) resulting from . . . immunizations sometimes are attributed

to other causes, because doctors are not sufficiently alerted to the

connection between immunizations and the deaths. . . .127

Neustadter maintains that the research on vaccine side effects by the

pharmaceutical industry remains seriously marginalized due to a significant

number of vaccine reactions going unreported, and the fact that it is often

difficult to attribute delayed effects with a vaccine. He further suggests

that the reason that the medico-pharmaceutical industry has consistently

failed to address the unanswered question of the long term effects of

vaccines, stems largely from their overriding interest in the active

promotion, and rapid marketing of vaccines. Investigation of their adverse

side effects generally remains a non-priority issue, insofar as such

efforts may undermine the public's acceptance of their products.128 On the

other hand, Snead suggests that when laboratories go public to the media

and confirm that " no known problems " exist, this does not mean that

scientists have researched to the limits of their knowledge and found no

side effects, but rather that no research has actually been done.129

Although there is compelling evidence that vaccine induced damage remains

chronically under-reported, it is of interest that B. Bloom of the Albert

Einstein College of Medicine, openly admits that there is today an emerging

reluctance on the part of medico-pharrnaceutical industry to further

develop vaccines, for both the developed and Developing Worlds. According

to Bloom, this reluctance stems from the fact that financial losses due to

the " liability " of established vaccines, actually exceed the " profits "

derived from them.130 In this vein, Mendelsohn indicates that vaccine costs

have " skyrocketed " as a consequence of multiple jury awards to damaged

children. In his words:

As more and more parents begin to recognize the link between vaccines and

their child's condition--epilepsy, convulsions, mental retardation,

cerebral palsy, Sudden Infant Death, etc.--lawsuits have become

commonplace. As drug companies exit the vaccine field, public health

authorities worry about vaccine shortages. 131

OF WHAT DO VACCINE PRODUCTS CONSIST?

It would be instructive to consider the range of substances--additional to

the attenuated virus etc. normally found in vaccine products. Specific

viruses and bacteria are grown in the following substances, with their

foreign proteins (antigens) including those derived from: pig or horse

blood; rabbit brain tissue; dog and monkey kidney tissue; chicken and duck

egg; and calf serum. (It is generally acknowledged that any foreign

substances including proteins--which have not been filtered through the

body's normal digestive assimilative, and excretory processes, can be

highly toxic when freely ranging in the lymphatic and blood systems.) Other

foreign additives normally found in various vaccines include:

formaldehyde--(a known carcinogen)

thimerosal--(an organomercurial antiseptic--49% mercury--although the

mercury is " closely bound, " it nonetheless is a toxic metal difficult for

the system to eliminate)

aluminum potassium sulphate (toxic)

aluminum phosphate--(a toxic substance commonly used in deodorants)

lactalbumin hydrolysate

phenol (carbolic acid)--(extremely toxic, not permitted in anti-toxins)

acetone--(volatile, and can easily cross the placental barrier)

glycerin--(tri-atomic alcohol derived from decomposed fats which can damage

kidney, liver, lungs, local tissue; cause dieresis and possible death.)132

Commenting on the inclusion of such substances in vaccine products, R.

Moskowitz indicates that " the fact is that we do not know and have never

attempted to discover what actually becomes of these foreign substances,

once they are inside of the body. " 133 Although there are " rigid "

precautions in licensing the use and quantity of these common stabilizers

and preservative, it certainly seems self-evident that there should be

further research to better determine what relationship--if any--exists

between such poisons, and various adverse reactions.

SOME OBSERVED AND POTENTIAL ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SPACIFIC VACCINES AND

TOXOIDS--DIAGNOSABLE IN THE SHORT TERM

By principally focusing on stimulating the production of antibody--which

increasing evidence suggests is only one marginal indicative factor among

many in immunity to disease--while ignoring the basic multiple determinants

of natural immunity (health), viruses, foreign antigens and proteins are

placed directly into the body tissues and are in turn carried throughout

the circulatory system (without censoring by the liver) giving them direct

accessibility to all of the body's vital organs and systems. Furthermore,

it is an EPI strategy that this short-circuiting of the body's natural

defense system is imposed at an extremely vulnerable time of life.134 The

stage has thus been set for the advent of a wide range of adverse

complications and sequelae.

What follows is a simple listing of observed side effects of specific

vaccines, or when noted toxoids. Practically all of the conditions listed

are commonly reported in the medical literature as linked to the prior

administration of the particular vaccine or toxoid noted. A few conditions

listed--such as the sudden infant death syndrome linked to the pertussis

vaccine--are not admitted by mainstream medicine as an adverse effect of

that particular vaccine, however the research as referenced is reputable

and points otherwise. (The vaccines covered in this section have been

confined to those prescribed in the Universal Childhood Immunization program.)

MEASLES

atypical measles (a more serious form of measles)

encephalopathy (irreversible brain damage)

subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (progressive brain damage which can

lead to death)

ataxia (incoordination in voluntary muscular movements)

mental retardation

aseptic meningitis (inflammation of the membranes of spinal cord or brain)

seizure disorders

encephalitis (inflammation of the brain)

hemiparesis (half-body paralysis)

retinopathy and blindness

secondary complications can include:

juvenile-onset diabetes

Reye's syndrome

multiplesclerosis (degeneration of the central nervous system)135

PERTUSSIS (WHOOPING COUGH)

hyperactivity

anaphylaxis (hyper-reaction which can include convulsions, unconsciousness

and or death)

epileptic type convulsions

learning disorders (including IQ reduction)

encephalopathy

febrile seizures

invasive bacterial infections

hay fever

asthma

encephalitis

sudden infant death (SIDS)136

DIPHTHERIA

(The following has occurred with combined diphtheria-tetanus vaccination,

and could be associated with either.)

altered electroencephalogram readings

seizures137

TETANUS TOXOID

brachial plexus neuropathy (disease affecting nerves which serve the arm,

forearm and hand)

anaphylaxis

encephalitis

recurrent abscesses (at injection site)

abdominal pain

debility 138

POLIO (OPV--ORAL LIVE-VIRUS)

paralytic polio

congenital brain tumors (transmitted by mothers who received vaccine during

pregnancy)139

GENERAL (I.E., IN COMBINATION)

meningitis 140

EXTENT AND NATURE OF OBSERVABLE VACCINE DAMAGE

There is a considerable range in estimates given as to the frequency of

damage being produced by particular vaccines. A case in point is the

American manufactured DPT vaccine, for which the claim is made that only 1

in 300,000 vaccinates exhibit permanent neurologic damage,141 whereas other

researchers suggest that permanent damage levels can reach as high as 1 in

300.142 Coumoyer's research findings fall between these two extremes for

permanent neurologic or brain damage. Her conclusions indicate that the

following varied rate reactions occur in vaccinates, per number of children

vaccinated:

Persistent crying--1 in 20

High fever--1 in 66

High pitched screaming--1 in 180

Convulsions--1 in 350

Shock like condition or collapse--1 in 350

Acute brain disorder--1 in 22,000

Permanent brain damage--1 in 62,000

Death--1 in 71,600.143

Again to illustrate the great variation in estimates, a relatively recent

study at UCLA (see Cody et al, ref 136) found that as many as one in every

13 children exhibited persistent high pitched crying after receiving the

DPT vaccine. In reference to this specific reaction, physician B. Young

states that " This may be indicative of brain damage in the recipient

child. " 144

According to data researched by Coulter and Fisher, of the 3.3 million

children vaccinated yearly in the US: 16,038 have high pitched

(encephalitic) screaming (which is considered by many neurologists as

indicative of central nervous system irritation); 8,484 have convulsions;

and 8,484 undergo collapse; " for an annual total of 33,006 cases of acute

neurological reactions within 48 hours of a DPT shot. " The authors further

suggest that there is a strong basis for concern with respect to the long

term reaction to the DPT vaccine.

Severe neurologic sequelae may . . . occur after vaccination in the absence

of an acute reaction. When the baby reacts to a DPT shot with " a slight

fever and fussiness for a few days " this may be, and often is, a case of

encephalitis which is quite capable of causing even quite severe long-term

neurologic consequences . . . . They further suggest that any who would

dismiss this possibility, must first establish a basis for distinguishing

between post-vaccinal encephalitis and encephalitis arising from other

causes.145

As a final observation on the issue of short term vaccine dangers, is the

postulated linkage of immunization with the " mysterious " problem of sudden

infant death (SIDS) in which infants can die " suddenly and quietly " in

their cribs. Australian microbiologist Glen Dettman explains that when

large amounts of an antigen are given the body responds by a massive

release of adrenal products including: cortisol, adrenalin, and an

excessive level of endorphins, actually " as much as a thousand times more

than is normally released by the brain. " He goes on to observe that:

The endorphins will suppress respiration and cardiac function. Thus if a

child with malnutrition, or an immune problem, is given a load of antigen

larger than it can handle--and this antigen may be an

immunisation--endorphins may result in respiratory or cardiac failure and

death.146

Torch's research indicates that two-thirds of 103 infants who were victims

of the sudden death syndrome had been immunized with DPT vaccine within the

3 week period preceding death, with many dying within a day of receiving

the vaccine.147 In a widely debated occurrence of SIDS in Tennessee (USA),

in which eleven infant deaths occurred within eight days of a DPT

vaccination, (nine from the same lot), and five within 24 hours of

vaccination (four from the same lot). Mortimer reported that the

probability of this being mere chance or coincidental to be between 2 and 5

in 1,000;148 whereas reported a much lower chance association of 4

and 5 in 10,000.149

LONG TERM (DELAYED) POTENTIAL ADVERSE EFFECTS OF IMMUNIZATION

Leaving the continuing controversies that exist over the extent and nature

of observable adverse reactions to vaccines, we go on to the equally

serious spectre of delayed reactions and the larger unanswered questions

which surround the long term consequences of immunization. (The material in

both this and the following section on " Immunization and Immune

Malfunction " is afforded not necessarily as definitive and factual

conclusions, but rather as preliminary research observations on

vital--albeit controversial--issues and questions which undoubtedly merit

further examination, research and analyses.) We began the exploration of

this issue by reviewing some basic concepts and concerns relative to the

strongly suspected linkage between live viral vaccines and the enormous

escalation of varied auto-immune disorders.

Lederberg, a Stanford University School of Medicine geneticist and

Nobel Prize winner, was perhaps the first to raise the warning that the use

of live virus vaccines in mass immunization campaigns represents

" biological engineering on a rather large scale. " He goes on to comment:

While these [vaccines] are thought to be of indubitable value for

preventing serious diseases, their global impact on the development of

human beings of a side range of genotypes is hard to assess at our present

stage of wisdom. . . . Live viruses are themselves genetic messages used

for the purpose of programming human cells for the synthesis of immunogenic

virus antigens.150

Researchers such as Buttram postulate that the use of live viral vaccines

in mass immunization programs introduces foreign genetic material into the

human system, which has precipitated an unprecedented escalation of various

auto-immune disorders in recent decades. These are disorders wherein

antibodies or immune cells indiscriminately attack the tissues of one's own

body-mind complex.151

Harvard graduate and physician, R. Moskowitz, explains how the live viruses

in vaccines can, in the long term, lead to such auto-immune disease

conditions. Vaccinal attenuated viruses attach their own genetic " episome "

to the genome (half set of chromosomes and their genes) of the host cell,

and are thus capable of surviving or remaining latent within the host cells

for years. The presence of this foreign antigenic material within the host

cell sets the stage for their unpredictable provocation of various

auto-immune phenomena such as herpes, shingles, warts, tumors--both benign

and malignant--and diseases of the central nervous system, such as varied

forms of paralysis and inflammation of the brain.152

Markowitz further poses the caution that vaccines do not act by merely

producing pale or mild copies of the original disease, but all of them

commonly produce a variety of symptoms of their very own. In some cases

" these illnesses may be considerably more serious than the original

disease, involving deeper structures, more vital organs, and less of a

tendency to resolve spontaneously. Even more worrisome is the fact that

they are almost always more difficult to recognize. " 153

A British Medical Journal article by et al, reports that " Various

German authors have described the apparent provocation of multiple

sclerosis by--vaccination against smallpox, typhoid, tetanus, polio, and

tuberculosis. " 154 No less disconcerting is the warning raised by Rutgers

University Professor R. Simpson when he addressed science writers at a

seminar sponsored by the American Cancer Society:

Immunization Programs against flu, measles, mumps, polio and so forth may

actually be seeding humans with RNA to form latent proviruses in cells

throughout the body. These latent proviruses could be molecules in search

of diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, systemic

lupus erythematosus, Parkinson's disease, and perhaps cancer.155

As if echoing Simpson, Dettman also raises the caution: that " some of the

attenuated strains of vaccines that we advocate may be implicated with . .

.. a number of degenerative diseases including rheumatoid arthritis,

leukaemia, diabetes and multiple sclerosis. " 156

A study in Science reported a notable similarity between certain diffffent

viruses (including measles and influenza) and the protein structure of the

brains protective myelin sheaths. This being the case, antibodies induced

by live viral vaccines could well be cross reacting and attacking brain

cells.157 Medical historian Coulter has developed a systematic and

comprehensive thesis that childhood immunizations frequently result in a

demyelinating encephalitis.(As already noted, encephalitis [inflammation of

the brain] has been associated with the pertussis, tetanus, and measles

vaccines.) This condition prevents the normal development of the protective

myelin sheaths of the brain and nerve cells during infancy and early

childhood. Such adverse pathologic changes may, on a visible level, lead to

a range of leaming disabilities and behaviourial problems, (As many as one

in five elementary school children are now considered to have some form of

minimal brain damage. " 158 It is also estimated that in the US over one

million children are medicated with powerful amphetamine drugs.159) 158,

159 which are now being encountered in the West with increasing frequency.160

Bruce Rabin, a professor of pathology and psychiatry at Western Psychiatric

Institute, Pittsburgh has found evidence that approximately one-third of

all cases of schizophrenia are auto-immune in nature, with immune bodies

attacking the brain cells.161 When we consider the alarming increase in the

numbers of schizophrenic cases, and the now credible " viral hypothesis of

mental disorders, " 162 childhood vaccine programs can be considered as

highly suspect in playing a causative role.

Medical Professor, R. Mendelsohn summarily comments that:

While the myriad short-term hazards of most immunizations are known (but

rarely explained), no one knows the long-term consequences of injecting

foreign proteins into the body . . . . Even more shocking is the fact that

no one is making any structured effort to find out.

There is growing suspicion that immunization against . . . childhood

diseases may be responsible for the dramatic increase in auto-immune

diseases since mass inoculations were introduced. These are fearful

diseases such as cancer, leukaemia, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple

sclerosis, Lou Gehrig's disease, lupus erythematosus, and the

Guillain-Barré syndrome. . . . Have we traded mumps and measles for cancer

and leukaemia? 163

Noted Russian specialist in neuro-pathology, A.D. Speransky, concurs with

the foregoing premonitory insights when he warns that post-vaccinal

diseases might occur long after the operation has been forgotten. He raises

the disquieting observation that " . . . it is conceivable that by these

methods we may be crippling humanity. " 164

Whether considering the short or longer term dangers of immunization

programs, it is further unsettling when we consider the evidence that the

public cannot really place much confidence in organized medicine to conduct

itself in an honest and forthright fashion. For example, in 1982 the Forum

of the American Academy of Paediatrics (AAP) rejected a proposed resolution

which would have ensured that the:

AAP make available in clear, concise language information which a

reasonable parent would want to know about the benefits and risks of

routine immunizations, the risks of vaccine preventable diseases and the

management of common adverse reactions to immunizations.165

EVIDENCES FOR IMMUNIZATION INDUCED IMMUNE MALFUNCTION

There is a growing body of evidence that vaccinations damage the immune

system itself. For example, during a placebo controlled trial of acellular

pertussis vaccines, a cluster of invasive bacterial infections with fatal

outcome occurred among vaccinated children, as compared with unvaccinated

children of the same birth grouping. A review of the trial data led to the

conclusion that " The hypothesis of an immunosuppresive effect of the

vaccines, which would explain the deaths . . . could not be refuted by the

data. " 166

It is the studied conclusion of H. Buttram and J. Hoffman (Harold Buffram

M.D., a graduate of Oklahoma Medical School, with a post internship in

internal medicine, has over 30 years of medical practice in the State of

Pennsylvania. Hoffman Ph.D., is a Cell Biologist and when interviewed

was serving as a biomedical researcher in the Department of Molecular

Biology at the University of Wyoming), that early childhood vaccination

" cannot help but have adverse effects on the immunologic system of the

child, possibly leaving this system crippled in its ability to protect the

child throughout life . . . . opening the way for other diseases as a

result of immunologic dysfunction. " 167

In reviewing their hypothesis of vaccine induced immune malfunction the

evidence they present is substantive (citing numerous references, including

four recognized textbooks on paediatrics and immunology), and their line of

reasoning convincing. The following observations are made:

" For many years immunologists have been aware of a state of anergy

(immunological unresponsiveness) following certain vaccinations "

A US Center for Disease Control examination of 700 Peace Corps volunteers

who had undergone a set of multiple vaccine injections in the US before

departure, exhibited an extremely weakened immune system response to the

vaccine (HDCV) administered after their arrival overseas

Vaccination against one disease seems to provoke another (on this point, a

physician's report of 15 case histories, over a five year period, where

diphtheria-pertussis vaccination lead to paralytic polio is described, and

Sir Graham is quoted [this doc. ref 7], " when a vaccine is injected

.. . . a latent infection that might have given rise to no illness is

converted into a clinical attack. " )

Vaccines have been implicated by numerous investigators as playing a

" causative or contributory role " to various auto-immune and degenerative

diseases, and suggests that their role in the onset of allergies or their

worsening, and lowered resistance to infections needs to be further

investigated

Given the one cell--one antibody rule, once an immune body (plasma cell or

lymphocyte) becomes committed to a given antigen, it becomes inert and

incapable of responding to other antigens or challenges to the immune

system. It is estimated that up 7 percent of the body's overall immune

capacity is committed in the natural immunological response to the usual

childhood diseases, whereas a child who undergoes the course of routine

childhood vaccines could be realizing a committal level of up 70 percent

The consequences of this significantly higher committal could result in

increased susceptibility to other infections, allergies, and auto-immune

diseases. (This particular observation is based upon sophisticated research

carried out by the Arthur Research Corporation, based in Tucson, Arizona.)

Evidence indicates that maternal immunization " may remove (abrogate) immune

defense from the level of the mucosa, thus potentially weakening mucosal

resistance " (immunologists have long recognized that the mucosal surface

serves as a " first line of defense " against infection)

Abnormal drops in the ratio of helper-to-suppresser T--lymphocyte cell

subpopulations in healthy subjects (a condition now associated with AIDS,

and possibly linked to transient hypogammaglobulinemia), observed after

tetanus booster immunization

Circumstantial evidence indicates that " cross-cultural " mass immunization

programs may be predisposing the onset of acquired immune deficiency

syndrome in " virgin soil " populations as found in the Developing World,

" which have not historically been subjected to the common diseases of

Western civilization "

There remains a great need to conduct careful studies on the potential

" immunosuppressive effects of vaccines, " particularly with respect to

" cross-cultural immunizations where exaggerated adverse responses would

more likely be detected "

Where there is already advanced impairment in a child's general immune

system, the injection of multiple antigens (vaccination), can weaken it

further to the point of precipitating death in the vaccinate

Before public endorsement is accorded to the extensive usage of vaccines,

certain preconditions should be addressed which include: a comprehensive

evaluation of the multiple factors which constitute the etiologic basis of

infectious disease; and the full range of factors and influences which

determine natural resistance to infection and disease; with a full public

disclosure of such research data.168

Despite the fact that immune malfunction is " often delayed, indirect, and

masked, (and) its true nature is seldom recognized, " there is now

sufficient evidence to suggest that growing disclosure of both the short

and longer term dangers of current vaccination programs will serve to

precipitate public demand for research to examine danger-free alternative

methods for the prevention of infectious diseases.169

J.E. Craighead, in summarizing the results of a workshop on " Disease

Accentuation after Immunization with Inactivated Microbial Vaccines, "

sponsored by the US National Institutes of Health, indicated that the

process of:

.. . . immuno-prophylaxis can be carried out safely only when the natural

history and pathogenesis of a disease is understood. In each of the

conditions considered at the workshop, this detailed knowledge was lacking

when vaccine trials were initiated in man. Had the vaccines induced lasting

solid immunity, prolonged protection might have resulted, although this

conclusion is far from certain. Moreover, production of circulating

antibodies or induction of cellular immunity (or both) may be hazardous

when local immune mechanisms of the mucosa are not operative.

Accentuation of disease was an unexpected complication of immunization in

each of the conditions. Disease was accentuated when the subject

(vaccinate) was exposed again, experimentally or under natural

circumstances, weeks or even years after completion of the immunization

regimen. Prolonged, intensive surveillance of immunization subjects

apparently is a requirement. . . . One can only wonder whether or not

recipients of currently licensed vaccines . . . that provide variable and

transient immunity are being followed adequately . . . . Accumulating

evidence strongly suggests that susceptibility to infection and disease is

affected by still undefined constitutional influences. 170

It is evident that Craighead's key question of what constitutes the still

undefined " influences " will be effectively resolved only when the focus of

selective medicine is able to make a radical shift towards displacing its

present adventitious arsenal of vaccines and toxic drugs, with the normal

and natural requisites of life and health. This is stated because the

historical record, and common sense point to the latter approach as

constituting the only sound basis for ensuring--not undermining--immune

functionality, thus effectively resolving the actual underlying causes of

both infectious and degenerative disease in man.

THE ETHICS OF UNIVERSAL CHILDHOOD IMMUNIZATION

There is indeed more than sufficient evidence to warrant far greater

caution and questioning, than is now evident in the public drumbeating,

idealism, and unqualified affirmations promoting the safety and

effectiveness of Universal Childhood Immunization Programs. In fairness, it

can be noted that some cautions have been raised on this issue from within

medical circles. In summarizing an article on whether prevention of

post-immunization adverse effects is possible, the editor(s) of

Postgraduate Medicine recommend that:

Parents must be informed of the rare possibility of serious adverse

effects, including seizure and allergic reaction. Every physician who

administers vaccine therefore needs to become familiar with the reactions

that may occur with each immunologic agent used. The best safeguard against

litigation, when and if a serious reaction follows vaccination, is the

indication that these considerations were discussed and that an informed

choice was made.171

Nonetheless, we find that UCI-EPI as it has been generally conceived and

executed represents two major departures from the time honoured ethics and

traditions of medicine. These are:

that all forms of treatment should be individualized, particularly when

prescribing or injecting substances which carry the potential for disease,

disablement, and death; and

the objectively informed patient (or parent) should always have absolute

freedom to accept or reject any given measure or therapy, and have

reasonable opportunity to consider alternatives.172

Just as environmentalists rightly challenge the appropriateness and right

of big business interests to pollute our fragile natural environment with

man-made chemicals, there arises the more personal, urgent and serious

matter of protecting the precious body-mind complex from foreign and

complex biological products that may well be touted as safe today, but

condemned as dangerous tomorrow. Indeed scientists and physicians now

openly admit that they have only a limited knowledge of the short term, and

even less understanding of the long term consequences of challenging the

bio-immune systems of children with a myriad of manufactured vaccines and

related toxins.

This in turn poses the more basic question of whether medical and political

authorities have the actual right--by reason and moral justice--to compel

and expose unnumbered children the world over to undertake what are in fact

unnecessary and potentially dangerous risks to their life and long term

health. It is reprehensible that such actions continue to be enforced by

authorities, while parents and local health workers are not accorded any

practical knowledge of the known dangers involved, and the extent to which

there prevails a general ignorance of the longer term consequences.173

It goes without saying that monopolization is just as dangerous in public

health as is it is in the field of general business. The human experience

has demonstrated time and again that monopoly and compulsion in any field

inevitably brings stagnation, whereas freedom of choice and the opportunity

to explore alternatives brings genuine progress.174

BANE OR BOON? SELECTIVE MEDICINE IN PRIMARY HEALTH CARE

Given the fact that UCI stands at the forefront as a centrepiece in the

" selective medicine primary health care model " (around which has grown a

powerful multi-billion dollar pharmaceutical industry), we must reconsider

its overall relevance to human health. In selective medicine the

relationship becomes one where the professional alone holds the authorized

enlightenment and skills, while the community and its people come to

represent the baser qualities of ignorance and subservient faith. This

dynamic engenders in the community an unhealthful respect for officially

authorized solutions, even when their effectiveness is in fact illusory.

The Aboriginal peoples of N. America have now reached the unenviable

distinction of being not only the most thoroughly immunized and medically

drugged, but also the sickest group on the continent (e.g., by the late

1970s, the Canadian Aboriginal infant mortality rate was double that of the

general population, with life expectancy at 36 years compared with 62 years

among Canadians generally.)175

Furthermore, alarming evidence suggests that in many Aboriginal communities

there is a continuing escalation in degenerative diseases and social

malaise. Both paleopathological and historical data convincingly indicate

that when living a way of life closely predicated upon natural law, and

free of adventitious medical interventions, North American Aboriginals were

distinguished as being one of the healthiest of world peoples.176

A more recent, albeit equally instructive picture can be fund among the

Maori (Polynesian) people, who likewise have been especially earmarked by

their national government (New Zealand) to receive the benefits of

selective medical intervention. A study covering the period of 1968 to 1971

found that when compared with their racial counterparts who live in the

remote island nations of the Pacific, the New Zealand Maoris appeared more

inclined to suffer from infectious disease, rheumatic fever, and

tuberculosis. They also seemed considerably more prone to develop

degenerative conditions such as heart disease and diabetes, afflictions

which were then virtually foreign to the remote island peoples. (In fact,

among Maori women in the age grouping of 35 to 55, coronary heart disease

was four to five times as frequent as among women of the same age group

living on the atolls of the central Pacific.)177

In the final analysis, disquieting evidence--much of which is not cited in

this research--suggests the overall irrelevance of selective Western

medicine to effecting longevity and ensuring general freedom from a range

of infectious and degenerative diseases. Furthermore, as a system, it

continues to significantly contribute to human morbidity and mortality " 178

(e.g., it has been shown in the USA, Holland, Israel and other developed

nations that when physicians engage in a complete strike, within a week to

10 days death rates actually plummet, in some cases by as much as 60 percent).

It would be appropriate here to quote Illich's unambiguous observation that

" Society can have no quantitative standards by which to add up the negative

value of illusion, social control, prolonged suffering, loneliness, genetic

deterioration and frustration produced by medical treatment. " 179 In

reference to selective medicine's central focus on absolving mankind from

giving due respect to the natural laws of cause and effect, Mahatma Gandhi

shares the following perspective.

I was at one time a great lover of the medical profession. . . . I no

longer hold that opinion. . . . Doctors have almost unhinged us. . . . I

regard the present system as black magic. . . . Hospitals are institutions

for propagating sin. Men take less care of their bodies and immorality

increases. . . . ignoring the soul, the profession puts men at its mercy

and contributes to the diminution of human dignity and self control. . . .

I have endeavoured to show that there is no real service of humanity in the

profession, and that it is injurious to mankind. . . . I believe that a

multiplicity of hospitals is not test of civilization. It is rather a

symptom of decay.180

Evidence suggests that Western medicine's over specialization and singular

focus on pathology has literally obfuscated its perception and undermined

its faith in the preventive and restorative power of the normal requisites

of health. To a great extent it thus remains as an inexact and ever

shifting system of trial and error, apparently more interested in

maintaining its monopolistic pecuniary interests and professionalist pride,

than in opening itself to new avenues of thinking and practice.

With all seriousness then we must raise the question as to whether we can

realistically expect the self-same medico-industrial system that has for so

long offered humankind little more than palliative and pathological

inducing vaccines and drugs, to offer us anything better. (To obtain

additional background on the practical impacts which the medico-industrial

system of the West is having on the Developing World, please refer to Annex

I--Problems With Developing World Medicalization and the Traditional

Medicine Alternative.) It is here that we turn to consider the larger issue

of what constitutes safer, more effective and sustainable approaches to

ensuring the development and maintenance of human health.

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SECTION II

TOWARDS MORE APPROPRIATE PRIORITIES IN DEVELOPING WORLD PRIMARY HEALTH CARE

We should ascertain whether natural resistance to infections could be

conferred on man by definite conditions of life. Injections of a specific

vaccine or serum for each disease, repeated medical examinations of the

whole population, construction of gigantic hospitals, are expensive and not

very effective means of preventing diseases and of developing a nation's

health.

is Carrel in Man the Unknown, p.207

THE REAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH

IN a recent article in the WHO publication World Health, Khan et. al

suggest that normatively health services in the Developing World continue

to be either substandard, inaccessible, unaffordable and under-utilized, or

to " suffer from a combination of these factors. " The authors go on to

comment that while the governments of many nations " have spent millions on

building physical infrastructures at district levels, the over-all health

status, especially of the urban and rural poor remains deplorable. " 181

This and a number of like articles on Primary Health Care and UCI, suggest

that the prime weaknesses now requiring rectification relate to inadequate

local involvement in and the non-sustainability of medical services.

Without any intent to lessen the critical importance of local participation

and sustainability in development, I would put forward the view that each

of the specific problems and weaknesses as identified, including the larger

issue of overall ineffectiveness, stem from the very principles and nature

of conventional selective medicine itself Primarily the medicine (both

vaccines and drugs representing the arsenal of what is postulated as a " war

on disease " ) and secondarily the established system whereby it is

" delivered, " is what is ineffective. In place of the popular drumbeating

for local communities to further embrace and sustain this system, there are

far more urgent and fundamental health priorities that must be addressed.

In a chapter on " Health and the Human Environment " found on the classic

work Health, Food and Nutrition in Third World Development, M. Sharpston

provides critical insights on how multiple social and environmental factors

ultimately serve as the real determinants of survival, or alternatively

death. In his words " . . . there is a limit to what conventional health

services can achieve in an unchanged physical and social environment. " He

then refers to the experience of a medical school affiliated hospital in

Cali, Columbia which had a special program for premature infants. During

their period of critical care, survival rates remained comparable to those

found in North American critical care settings, however within three months

of being discharged, 70 percent of the infants had died. With reference to

those regions within the Developing World where notable health improvements

have occurred he suggests that:

The most likely factors leading to health improvements . . . are a rise in

the levels of nutrition and the slow spread of modern ideas of personal

hygiene. Across the Developing World, per capita incomes are rising, and

transport systems are improving,, the result is more food, better quality

food, fewer localized food shortages, and a more varied diet. In other

words, the principal factor behind the improvement in health . . . in

Developing countries is probably not any form of health measure, but

economic development itself. . . . Mere exposure to a disease agent need

not produce clinical disease and very frequently does not do so.

Malnutrition is of such significance essentially because it hampers the

body's resistance. Malnutrition acts " synergistically " with disease agents

to increase the incidence of clinical disease and aggravate its severity. " 182

In a very recent article focusing on the major influences on health in the

Developing World, McKeown, past Chairman of the World Health

Organization (WHO) Advisory Group on Research Strategy also articulates a

view that clearly takes the issue of human health out delimiting bounds of

selective medicine. His incisive conclusion follows:

.. . . evidence is now available from a number of Third World countries that

have advanced rapidly in health: China, Costa Rica, Cuba, India (Kerala

State), Jamaica, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and a few others.. . . The

improvement in health was almost entirely due to a reduction from

infectious disease. To assess priorities in health policies in the Third

World the chief requirement is therefore to come to a conclusion about the

reasons for the decline of the infections.

.. . . All the countries that advanced rapidly achieved a substantial

improvement in nutrition, which led to increased resistance. Indeed in some

countries this was the only important direct influence. It is perhaps

surprising that immunization appears to have contributed relatively little

to the advances . . . the reduction in mortality occurred during a period

when vaccine coverage was still low.

To anyone who has traveled extensively in the rural areas of the Third

World, the common causes of ill health may seem self-evident. Many children

are visibly malnourished, sanitary conditions are primitive, drinking water

is unclean, the food . . . is contaminated, and the number of people

competing for the means of life is clearly excessive. Our conclusions

concerning the determinants of health can be epitomized by the simple

statement that people must have enough to eat and must not be poisoned.183

In a World Health article highly germane to the " determinants " as raised by

McKeown, Finland's H. Hellberg (a former Division Director at the WHO)

postulates that the success of any genuine effort to alleviate disease in

the Developing World must incorporate " intersectoral and multisectoral

action. " In his words " involvement of specialists other than the

traditional healing professions; water, food, housing, sanitation and

education are all important prerequisites for health. If they are neglected

curative repair . . . may even be impossible. " 184

To conclude these critical observations on Developing World health

development priorities, it would prove instructive to consider the similar

conclusions reached by K.L. Standard (Professor and Head of the Department

of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of the West Indies).

.. . . . mere survival is not enough. With no improvement in their standard

of living and nutrition, they (children) frequently succumb to infection,

with repeated relapses . . . . It will be extremely difficult to make

further reductions in mortality rates in developing countries without

significantly raising standards of living, including nutrition. Among the

general measures of primary prevention that may be considered, an increase

of food production is of paramount importance. Environmental sanitation

deserves high priority, and health education of the public is a key

activity at both national and community levels. . . . The final and

permanent answer to the problem will rest in. social and economic

development . . . taking into account the need for nutritional improvement

of the present generation.

For obvious reasons, the highest priority must be given to preventive

measures. If good nutritional status is maintained in the first years of

life, successive attacks of most infectious diseases of moderate virulence

will probably produce no more than mild effects.. . . Optimal maternal diet

during pregnancy, prolonged breastfeeding, progressive weaning with

appropriate foods, and education of mothers on infant-feeding practices are

the basis of good nutritional status in children.185

ECLIPSING THE SPIRIT OF ALMA ATA

It would be instructive at this point to go back to relatively recent

history to see how this vitally sound and rational perspective was

officially recognized at an international level, but then practically

scuttled in favour of the annamentarium of Universal Childhood Immunization.

On the opening page of the recently completed Evaluation Assessment of the

Canadian International Development Agency's (CIDA) Health Sector the

observation is made that by the mid-seventies, " after more than 30 years of

international health assistance, it had become apparent that curative

strategies that directly addressed disease causing agents had failed . . .

recipient countries . . . [in meeting] their long term health needs. " 186 It

was a recognition of this reality that presumably led Canada and other

industrialized nations to the signing of the historic Alma Ata Declaration

in 1978. The basic principles of Primary Health Care as embodied in this

Declaration follow:

The Principles of Primaly Health Care

As Emboclied in the Alma Ata Declaration

1 . Equitable Distribution-- addressing the root causes of ill health, and

ensuring health resources are equitably distributed among all groups and

across geographic regions

2. Community Involvement-- genuine health decision-making by the community

3. Multisectoral Approach-- due recognition of the key influence on health

of environmental (incl. nutritional), economic, and social factors as well

as health services

4. Appropriate Technology-- sociocultural acceptability and relevance.187

By 1980 CIDA published a public affairs statement on CIDA's Involvement in

Health thereby reaffirming that in its support of Bilateral Primary Health

Care initiatives in the Developing World, the Agency would place central

priority on: the training of health auxiliaries; health and nutrition;

essential education; adequate food production; potable water supply; family

planning; and provision of simple equipment and supplies.188

Despite the virtual eclipsing of these priorities by Canada's massively

increased support for Universal Childhood Immunization in the late 80's and

into the 90's, the Canadian Govemment's Official Development Assistance

Policy as embodied in the 1987 policy document Sharing Our Future, actually

emphasizes that a fundamental priority of CIDA " must be to supply all the

basics of health " which is defined as " clean water, sanitation, (and)

adequate nutrition. " Furthermore there was to be a mobilization of the poor

at the community level as " partners " in the design, implementation and

evaluation of health activities.189

Canada's aforenoted actions have not been singular, as it must be noted

that virtually all of the industrialized nations had likewise overshadowed

their earlier vision and commitment to ensuring fundamental health

improvement measures by instead allocating a major portion of their

" health " investments to mass artificial immunization and selective curative

programs. In response to this major reversal, in November of 1985 alarmed

community health specialists and practitioners from several developed and

developing nations convened at Antwerp, and there articulated what is

called The Antwerp Manifesto For Primary Health Care. Some key excerpts

from the Manifesto follow:

.. . . In spite of the lessons of history and of past experiences, major and

international donor agencies are diverting scarce resources into a short

term approach known as " selective primary health care. . . " This approach

is in total contradiction with the fundamental principles underlying

Primary Health Care. These principles are:

The main roots of poor health lie in living conditions and the environment

in general, and more specifically in poverty, (and) inequity . . . of

resources in relation to needs

Since health is . . . of people, it is self defeating not to consider them

as partners who are able to play a great part in the protection and

improvement of their own health

Health services must provide . . . promotive and rehabilitative measures.

This has to be done in a coordinated and integrated way which responds to

the peoples needs.

This manifesto is issued because the proliferation of selective health

intervention programmes undermines . . . Primary Health Care. It is issued

also because these interventions purport to offer " quick solutions " and

" instant success " for which they divert scarce resources from the solution

of the real underlying and continuing problems, thus helping to maintain

ill health. In addition, experience has taught us that selective

interventions tend to become permanent even though they are presented as

" interim " responses only. . . . And above all, the selective approach rules

out the possibility of people's participation in decision making about

their own health.190

EMERGING--A MORE PRACTICABLE PRIMARY HEALTH CARE MODEL

Table E which follows on the next two pages, was developed with the

appreciated assistance of medical sociologist L. Chetelat. It provides a

clear picture of the paradigmatic contrasts existing between the selective

war on disease model as exemplified in Westem selective medicine, and the

emerging causal based approach to health sustenance and restoration.

The causal model is strongly predicated on the principle that man's

relationship to the laws of nature (natural law) and life, must undergird

any effective health maintenance and or restoration strategy. Such an

approach is recommended as inherently more sensible, balanced, and cost

effective for attaining and sustaining public health, whether among

Developed or Developing World populations. The causal based model strongly

emphasizes the importance of strengthening self-knowledge,

self-responsibility, and self-care and thus far more closely corresponds to

the challenge and direction mandated in the historic Alma Ata Declaration.

It also affords genuine respect for the integral principles which undergird

the practice of participatory development. As a final point its

characteristic qualities of local accessibility, manageability,

affordability, and effectiveness herald its great promise for humankind.

Table E--The War on Disease Approach Versus The Health Causal Approach WAR

ON DISEASE APPROACH HEALTH CAUSAL APPROACH

1. Orientation & Philosophy 1. Orientation & Philosophy

Disease is understood as an entity separate from and attacking the patient.

Recognition of acute disease as a systemic reparative process inseparable

from the person.

The body and mind are separated, with distinct diseases and organs treated

singly. Recognizes the body and mind as being inseparably one, to be

treated as a unity.

The focus on labeling, isolating, and destroying " disease, " i.e., its

entities, and symptoms. The focus on strengthening the protective and

regenerative health energies, and resources of the person.

2. Causality 2. Causality

The focus of causality is external to the patient--viruses, bacteria,

poisons, and in more recent time stresses in the environment. The focus of

causality is both internal to the person as it relates to primary lifestyle

practices, deficiencies, negative emotions, etc.; and external as it

relates to debilitative factors in the natural and social environments.

3. Prevention & Cure 3. Prevention & Cure

Artificially separates preventative and curative measures. Recognizes that

health sustenance and restoration depend on the selfsame measures.

The emphasis is on removing or palliating symptoms. It aims at achieving

quick results. The emphasis is on removing causes through lifestyle,

psycho-spiritual, and other sustainable changes to debilitative

bio-nutritional, environmental, social, and political conditions.

Relies on highly sophisticated technological and costly measures that are

not amenable to self and include: family based care, i.e., manufactured

vaccines, organ transplants, drugs, etc. These measures are noted for

bearing harmful side effects (latrogenesis). Relies on health building and

restorative measures that are harmless, non-invasive, efficacious,and

uncostly. These include adequate and quality nutrition, potable water,

local (non-toxic) plant medicines, enhanced natural environment, and other

apropos regenerative measures.

4. Care Providers 4. Care Providers

The emphasis is on exclusive management and control of health and disease

by medical professionals who know all, while patients blindly follow the

" doctor's orders. " Emphasis is placed on the informed and responsible

involvement of people in understanding and managing their own health needs.

Relies solely on the expertise of highly trained medical professionals,

holding occult knowledge, and unfathomable wisdom. Builds upon the

distinctive knowledge and inherent capacities of individuals, families and

communities. " Local healers " are prepared to provide basic care, coupled

with training in wellness principles and family self care.

5. Cost 5. Cost

Cost is escalating to the point of being an unmanageable and unsustainable

burden on society. Cost is de-escalating, to the point of being negligible.

6. Research 6. Research

Research focuses on tracking, isolating and destroying " disease " and its

associated entities. Research focuses on better understanding and

appropriating the fundamental requisites of life and health.

The absence of disease is considered the result of techno-medical

interventions. The absence of disease is recognized as the consequences of

compliance with the natural laws of creation.

7. Health Care Outcomes 7. Health Care Outcomes

Produces a system of disease care and disease scare. People learn to fear,

distrust and disrespect the natural world, and their own bodies. Produces a

system of health care based upon people developing a practical knowledge

of, trust in and respect for the natural world, and for their own bodies.

People become unduly dependent on medical institutions and authorities.

This in turn diminishes self-respect and moral responsibility, while coping

strategies are diminished leading to resignation, helplessness and

hopelessness. People develop and carry out coping strategies, which in turn

will inevitably lead to better health, along with longer and fuller life.

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SECTION III

A CONSIDERATION OF ALTERNATIVES TO

ENSURING NATURAL IMMUNITY

THE SOIL AS CHIEF DETERMINANT OF HEALTH AND THE FOUNDATION OF PUBLIC HEALTH

POLICY

In recognition of the indubitable axiom that all forms of life derive their

basic sustenance from the earth itself, it remains equally evident that any

policy to ensure public health must first and foremost be predicated on

ensuring the quality and integrity of the soil. Prominent British

horticulturist Sampson offers the following incisive observation.

My long continued studies in the dust have convinced me that diseases in

soils, plants and men arise from conditions, brought about by the

introduction of poisons and by imperfect environment,- and experiments have

satisfied me beyond doubt that this is the natural and correct

explanation.191

Indeed there is a substantial basis for suggesting that it is of the

highest importance that health and development ministries in both

industrialized and Developing World nations should henceforth predicate

their strategic health policies upon a practical recognition that the

treatment and condition of the soil is by far the most critical determinant

of health (whether in plants, animals, or human beings). In his seminal

research on the underlying causes of the outstanding health and longevity

among the population of Hunza--a society that until very recently has

remained essentially free of medical intervention--G.T. Wrench aptly

concluded:

The importance of the method of culture of food is primary, radical, and

fundamental in the matter of health. It exceeds all other aspects of

nutrition. . . Nature endows life with a powerful, eternal capacity to

renew itself healthfully, given the right conditions. The genes know

nothing of diseases.192

Shelton seconds this conclusion in his observation that through the

relatively simple measure of building up our soils, crops can be freed of

fungal infections. In his view fungi, which live at the expense of living

plants, " are incapable of successfully attacking one that is completely

healthy. . . . In plant, as in animals, the nutritional status largely

determine the . . . soundness . . . of tissue developments.193

INSIGHTFUL EXPERIMENTS

The historically significant experiments of Sir Albert , British

Imperial Economic Botanist, based in India in the first quarter of this

century, confirm the correctness of this view. Through natural soil feeding

and regeneration methods, the plants and crops under his management

demonstrated continuous improvements to the point of being impervious to

all forms of disease as well as insect pests. Speaking of his organic

gardens and orchards at Indore, he stated that during seven years of

observation " I cannot recall a single case of insect or fungus attack. "

Indeed it was his studied opinion that:

.. . . plant diseases . . . only attack unsuitable varieties or crops

improperly grown. Their true role in agriculture is that of censors for

pointing out the crops which are imperfectly nourished. Disease resistance

seems to be the natural reward of healthy and well-nourished protoplasm.

The policy of protecting crops from pests by means of sprays, powders and

so forth is thoroughly unscientific and radically unsound; even when

successful, this procedure merely preserves material hardly worth saving.

The annihilation or avoidance of a pest . . . are mere evasions.

However, Sir 's most vital findings pertained to the animals feeding

on his crops who in turn developed total freedom from disease and

deformities.

For twenty-one years I was able to study the reaction of the well-fed

animals to epidemic diseases such as rinderpest, hoof-and-mouth disease,

septicaemia, and so forth, which frequently devastated the countryside.

None of my animals were segregated, none were inoculated; they frequently

came in contact with diseased stock. No case of infectious disease

occurred.194

This calls to mind a personal interview I conducted with A. Kalokerinos,

Chief Medical Officer at the Aboriginal Health Clinic in Redfern (Sydney),

Australia. He related an experience wherein cattle feeding on grass grown

on re-mineralized soil, were grazing literally nose to nose--at the fence

line--with another herd infected with hoof and mouth disease. Without the

benefit of any specific protective measures including vaccines, the

uninfected herd manifested total immunity.

In returning to the subject of insect pests, we find that there is clear

evidence that insects have an innate ability to detect mineral defeciencies

and imbalances--even at a subtle level--in plants, and selectively devour

only those which are deficient or imbalanced. According to horticulturist

S. Mueller " Satellite photographs of Africa have shown how gigantic flights

of locusts will cover thousands of miles ignoring healthy vegetation, then

descending and destroying fields where the soil is wom out.195

This and the earlier observations made on the relationship of microbes to

human disease, parallels the view that pathogenic microorganisms act as

nature's censors, proliferating only when the host's psychophysiology has

been imbalanced and weakened by factors such as stress, malnutrition, endo

and environmental toxins, etc. Sir 's experiences with the building

of natural immunity in plants had been preceded by such great soil

scientists as Julius Hensel in Germany, and Sampson in England,

whose findings were later replicated by Dr. Northern and Albert

Savage in North America.

These scientists employed soil re-mineralization and regeneration

techniques, employing the use of ground stone dust or sea vegetation, and

green (plant) compost, and the periodic aeration of plant or tree roots

through cultivation. The results were indeed phenomenal. Marketed spinach

grown on ordinary soil contained from 600 to 1,600 parts per billion of

iodine, whereas spinach grown on re-mineralized soil contained as high as

640,000 parts per billion. Testing revealed that various vegetables grown

in Savage's " mineral garden " possessed as much as 400% more iron and other

minerals than crops grown by standard methods.196

SOIL RE-MINERALIZATION--A RETURN TO PRIMEVAL CONDITIONS

The necessity of soil re-mineralization is based on the premise that over

the millennia the earth's surface has undergone a progressive erosion of

both its major and trace minerals. As well, the widespread and serious

de-mineralization problem has been vastly exacerbated in this century by

deforestation, massive mono-culture cropping, and heavy agrochemical

dependency. Today the only place where the full range of vital minerals can

be found is in the seabeds where streams and rivers have carried them, or

in the earth's rocks. Thus the utilization of sea plants and rock dust

became a central feature in strategic efforts to achieve balanced soil

re-mineralization.

The place of soil re-mineralization--as a fundamental health strategy--is

corroborated not only by experimenters in improving plant and animal

wellness, but as well in prehistoric fossil records. For instance,

paleopathologist Roy L. Moodie has found that " the early faunas were free

of disease " and that " the most ancient bacteria were harmless, " i.e.,

non-pathogenic in nature. He maintains that " There are no known cases or

examples of infection, no tumors, few traumatic lesions or injuries of any

kind prior to Devonian " and that " the earliest animals were free from

disease.197 It is also worth noting in this regard that the earliest book

of antiquity in the Judeo-Christian record, Genesis, gives no account of

any specific human diseases, and as well makes no reference to conditions

such as imbecility, blindness, deaffiess, or other deformities.

SOIL DIETETICS AND DISEASE

In reviewing a modern text-book of domesticated crop diseases, one is as

appalled by their number and variety as one is by the list of human

illnesses in a text-book of medicine. The correlation is remarkable. We

find in both a number of deficiency diseases; excess diseases; parasitic

diseases; virus diseases; diseases due to insufficient or defective water,

oxygen and sunlight; those associated with excessive heat or cold; chemical

induced diseases (i.e., spraying/drugging); and last but not least multiple

degenerative and deformity diseases. How did the major share of these

diseases come into being? By cause, or mere chance? Wrench answers:

I take it that what has happened to man has happened no less to his

domesticated plants. Science has effected a marvelous progress in variety

and fragmentation, but at the same time it has torn plants from their

traditional conditions upon which their health depends. . . . here is, no

doubt, I think, that modern man has made plant life in his own image.198

Part of today's larger shift toward environmental responsibility and

sustainability, are the commendable efforts to reduce excessive dependency

on soil and plant chemicals in agricultural methods. However, the growing

impetus toward " organic " approaches to agriculture relies heavily upon

manure fertilizers. On this point Shelton comments that " . . . it has long

been known that heavy manuring of the soil results in the plants grown

thereon being subject to parasitic infestation because of their lack of

health.199

also contends that fertilizers derived from stable manure or of

animal origin (as well as chemicals), were significantly injurious to the

health of soil and plants. In fact, he maintains that their widespread use

has served to create conditions of disease and degeneration consecutively

in soil, plant, animal and human life. In his words:

I have proved that susceptibility to disease is greatest with large

dressings of dung. It is the main cause of fungoid infections of plants . .

.. and bad eyesight, bad teeth, and kindred troubles in human beings. . . .

As to [chemical] fertilizers, they often deplete the soil of its fertility

and induce acidity. . . . 200

His experimental work in England in the early part of this century, closely

paralleled those of Sir in India. The farms surrounding his own--all

employing conventional agribusiness methods--were struck again and again

over the years by multiple forms of disease and a variety of pests.

's vast fruit orchards, vegetable gardens and grain fields thrived,

totally immune' to these perennial problems.201 (For more background

discussion on the need and potential for achieving an enhanced agricultural

system that is more conducive to ensuring natural immunity, in plants,

animals, and man please refer to Annex II--Agrochemical Agriculture--the

Need for a Saner Alternative.)

Another notable and much more recent horticultural experimenter who bears

mentioning is Australian . In his outstanding book From Soil

to Psyche, he maintains that when plants are deprived of vital organic and

mineral nutrients and instead are stimulated to undergo enforced growth--as

in the case of chemical fertilization--such plants " react by a wild

development of cellular structure which is deficient in trace elements and

amino acids. " He goes on to affirm that:

Such poorly constituted crops cannot avoid, and must inevitably attract,

any prevalent form of disease. At our own organic farms, not one papaya

tree was lost during the severe disease epidemic of 1973 which followed

Eastern Australia's 1972 partial drought. Every newspaper reported the

severe plant losses of up to 90 percent of plantations from " three strains

of virus. . . "

It was no strange or mystical phenomenon that our farm, with its

organically mulched plants, registered not even a decline in crop

production while other farmers in the district were bemoaning their huge

losses.202

KEY NUTRITIONAL MEASURES IN PREVENTING INFECTIOUS DISEASE

Until lately disease was regarded as a sin of commission by some unseen and

subtle agency. The vitamins are teaching us to regard it . . . as a sin of

omission on the part of civilized and hyper-civilized man. By our habit of

riveting our attention on microbes and their toxins we have sadly neglected

the side of the question which concerns itself with our own bodily defenses.

Prominent British Physician--Leonard

Given the necessity for limiting the scope of this document, and the wide

ranging dimensions which the issue of alternatives represent, it would be

impracticable to attempt to highlight all the promising directions for

systematic applied research on strengthening natural immunity that exist.

However, given the singular recognition that is being accorded to the role

of nutrition as a lifestyle factor in both the prevention and treatment of

infectious and degenerative diseases, it clearly represents a primal area

for undertaking far more intensive applied research and

experimentation.(The scope of viral, toxin and bacterial associated

conditions to be considered in this section on nutrition and infection will

not necessarily be delimited to the UCI-EPI childhood diseases.)

It seems remarkable that some of the most significant experimental and

clinical based research literature that exists on the relationship between

nutrition and infectious disease were published in the first half of the

twentieth century. Much of this early and now largely forgotten applied

research documented the considerable preventive and therapeutic values of

the newly discovered vitamins. Given that the relationship between

nutrition and health represents in itself a vast and complex subject, for

brevity's sake this discussion on nutritional measures will necessarily be

limited to an examination of the two vitamins which both clinical research

and practice have revealed as holding the most significant role in the

prevention and alleviation of various infectious diseases, i.e., Vitamins A

and C.

VITAMIN A

Vitamin A is recognized as an essential nutrient for maintaining normal

physiologic functions, including cellular differentiation, membrane

integrity, vision, immunologic responses and growth. Literature dating back

as far as the 1920's has noted an association between Vitamin A deficiency

and an increased incidence and severity of infection,203 which led to the

labeling of Vitamin A as the " anti-infective Vitamin " by Clausen. 204 In

more recent time, Vitamin A deficiency has received considerable attention

in international health circles. This has been largely due to various field

studies which have linked Vitamin A deficiency with an increased risk of

childhood morbidity and mortality.205, 206, 207

Of these,206 it was observed by the field researchers that preschool

children with mild xerophthalmia (night blindness and bitot's spots, a

condition clearly attributable to Vitamin A deficiency) were dying at a

rate ranging from 4 to 12 times greater than that of neighboring children

with normal eyes and vision. (This represented an 18 month longitudinal

study of 4,600 Javanese [indonesian] preschool children from six separate

communities.)

In fact such relationships persisted even after stratifying for the

presence or absence of respiratory disease, protein energy malnutrition,

and diarrhoea. The researchers asked but did not answer why mildly Vitamin

A-deficient children died at such increased rates, " especially those who

were [apparently] well nourished and seemingly free of diarrhoea and

respiratory disease, " which are considered the major causes of childhood

mortality in developing countries.

The first major controlled field study to be published in an established

medical journal detailing an observed relationship between Vitamin A

deficiency and infectious disease, 207 reported on the results of a

randomized, community trial of Vitamin A supplementation in northern

Sumatra (Indonesia). 450 villages were randomly assigned to either

participate in a Vitamin A supplementation scheme (229 villages), or serve

for one year as a control (221 villages). The study observed that among

children aged 1 to 6 years at baseline, the death rate in the 221 control

villages--which did not receive the vitamin nor any placebo--was 49%

greater than in those villages where supplementation was given. (Although

the study was actually designed to examine nutritional blindness, these

unanticipated results were found when comparing mortality rates between the

treatment and the control villages.)

Despite such promising findings, the posture of the medical community has

generally been one of either questioning the " validity " of the research

methodology and findings, or of putting the brakes on initiating any actual

policy and or programming changes. To quote a 1990 statement of Kjolhede

and Gadomski of s Hopkins University in response to the various Sommer

et al studies:

Because scientific evidence relating to Vitamin A is being generated by

diverse sources, and because there is a paucity of data strictly relevant

to childhood survival in developing countries, the implications of these

and other findings have been dijficult to translate into specific policies

and programmatic recommendations.208

According to secondary research carried out by Mamdani and Ross, and

reported in their exhaustive article " Vitamin A supplementation and child

survival: magic bullet or false hope?, " 209 Vitamin A deficiency

represents " . . . a major nutritional problem among preschool children in

many countries of Africa, Asia, as well as some areas of Central and and

South America. " In fact an estimated 250,000 young children will go blind

each year due to a lack of Vitamin A in their diets, while another 250,000

will experience lesser degrees of permanent impairment of vision due to

corneal damage; (According to West and Sommer, an estimated 700,000

preschool children will develop active corneal lesions; and 6,700,000 new

children will manifest mild Vitamin A deficiency annually. As well--at any

one time--an estimated 20 to 40 million are suffering from mild levels of

Vitamin A deficiency.) 210 with up to 75 percent of the blinded children

dying within a few months of the blinding episode. The literature indicates

that the association between " severe Vitamin A deficiency and infant and

child mortality has been established for some time. " The authors go on to

conclude that:

An association between Vitamin A deficiency and infectious diseases, in

particular diarrhoea, respiratory infections and measles--which are among

the most important causes of death during childhood in the Developing

World--has significant policy implications. . . .

Overall, the balance of evidence suggests that Vitamin A deficiency does

lead to an increased risk of infections such as measles, respiratory

infections and diarrhoea, and hence to an increased risk of death.

Conversely, the evidence suggests--but as yet does not prove

conclusively--that Vitamin A supplementation, or other strategies' 211

(Other strategies include the fortification of selected commercial foods

which are commonly consumed, and dietary modifications. The latter measure

includes a " long term solution, " i.e., the increased production of Vitamin

A-rich foods through home, school, and community gardens, wherever climate

and soil conditions permit. An example where the increased production and

distribution of garden produce--coupled to basic nutrition

education--worked well was the Applied Nutrition Program in Tamil Nadu,

India. Mothers diagnosed as anaemic and VitaminA deficient were given

access to this produce. Examination, after six months, revealed

" considerable " improvements to their general nutritional status, along with

the " disappearance of all the clinical signs of Vitamin A deficiency. 211)

for improving Vitamin A status, would lead to a decrease in the incidence

and/or the severity of these infections and of the substantial mortality

associated with them. The magnitude of this potential effect remains

unclear, however, though the evidence from the Indonesian studies implies

that it may be substantial.212

It is encouraging that as of 1987 the following nations have already

adopted home gardening as a national priority: Barbados, Chile, Colombia,

Dominica, Honduras, India, Indonesia, the Philippines and SriLanka.213

VITAMIN C

In introducing the subject of Vitamin C, it would be fitting to share the

following observation made by the Australian microbiologist/physician team

of Dettman and Kalokerinos, who over many years have conducted wide ranging

research--both secondary and original--on the prophylactic and therapeutic

potential of Vitamin C.

If you were offered a substance that could assist with the endogenous

production of interferon and PGE1, that activated enzyme systems, assisted

with mineral uptake and collagen production, aided healing, prevented

capillary fragility and stimulated renal function, was capable of curing

both viral and bacterial infections, was a universal detoxifier effective

against drugs and venomous bites and was currently being used more and more

in the treatment of degenerative diseases, you would rightly scoff. More

particularly if you were told that this substance was Vitamin C, yet all

these claims and more have been documented and put to clinical trial.214

As we go on to examine what is indeed a vast body of experimental and

clinical data on Vitamin C, we find that there are indeed substantive

evidences for its efficacy as a low cost, perfectly safe, and wide spectrum

anti-viral, anti-toxic and anti-bacterial agent. Internationally noted

biochemist Irwin Stone has alone described and documented a wide range of

applied biomedical research and clinical experience employing 122

literature citations--spanning a 40 year period showing its marked efficacy

as a prophylactic and therapeutic agent.215 In obtaining and reviewing a

number of the original source documents cited by Stone--relative to Vitamin

C and the infectious diseases--it was both amazing and perplexing that so

little of this vital knowledge which was discovered earlier in this century

is being further researched and or utilized today.

I. Viral Infections

Within a relatively limited timeframe after the 1933 discovery of ascorbic

acid (Vitamin C) and its identification as an anti-scorbutic (scurvy)

substance, a diverse range of researchers found that ascorbic acid had

significant potential as a wide-spectrum antiviral agent. Throughout the

30's in rapid succession Jungeblut showed that ascorbic acid would

inactivate the virus found in poliomyelitis; 216 Holden and Molley,

inactivation of the herpes virus; 217Lagenbusch and Enderling, inactivation

of the virus found in hoof and mouth disease; 218 and Amato, inactivation

of the rabies virus.219 It should be noted that Jungeblut observed that the

" antiviral " effect of Vitamin C is not due to the acid reaction of the

ascorbic acid, since it occurs also when the latter has been adjusted to a

pH at which the virus remain " unharmed. " 220

Jungeblut continued his experimental work at Columbia University with

primates in which he demonstrated that a scheduled administration of

ascorbic acid both enhanced resistance to poliomyelitis, and in cases of

infection markedly reduced the severity of the disease. His experiments

also demonstrated a very marked superiority in the level of effectiveness

of natural source ascorbic acid, versus the laboratory synthesized product.

For example in one experimental series, " the percentage of non-paralytic

survivors following treatment with natural Vitamin C was about six times as

large as that of the untreated controls, " whereas " in the animals treated

with synthetic Vitamin C this percentage was only twice that of the

controls.221 (Despite such promising early findings, no serious or

systematic efforts were made by organized medicine during this historical

time period to incorporate the vitamin as a prophylactic or therapeutic

agent.)

However, the later results achieved in the direct clinical practice of

North Carolina physician F. Klenner approached the extraordinary. He

graphically describes--from his own practice and other sources--the

substantive efficacy of this vitamin in preventing and/or reversing

pathological and life threatening conditions which literally extend over

" the entire gamut of medical knowledge. " The following list details the

range of conditions as described in this and other journal articles by

Klenner. Although viral related conditions are being discussed in this

section, a few bacterial diseases have been included in this list and are

italicized for identification (the list also includes some serious toxic

and degenerative conditions).

TABLE F -- CONDITIONS SUCCESSFULLY PREVENTED AND OR REMEDIATED EMPLOYING

VITAMIN C infectious hepatitis virus pneumonia

influenza diphtheria

virus encephalitispoliomyelitis pertusis (whooping caugh)

measles chicken pox

parotitis (mumps) tetanus (lockjaw)

mononucleosis rheumatic fever

scarlat fever botulism

heavy metal intoxication poisonous insect, spider and snake bites

trichinosis* bacillary dysentary

malignancies post-operative deaths

childbirth labor (easing and shortening) postpartum hemmorages (prevents)

cardiovascular diseases peptic and duodenal ulcers

pancreatitis severe burns (mostly external treatment)

radiation sickness carbon mooxide poisoning

barbiturate poisoning222

*In Klenner's successful reversal of trichnosis, a combination of Vitamin C

and para-aminobenzoic acid were used.

He describes the role played by ascorbic acid in intercellular reactions

and its neutralization and perceived control of virus production. Its

enzymic action contributes to the breakdown of virus nucleic acid to

adenosine deaminase which converts to inosine. The end result are purines

which are " extensively catabilized. " As well, when ascorbic acid joins the

available virus protein, it results in a new macromolecule which acts as

the " repressor factor. " In fact it has been " demonstrated that when

combined with the repressor, the operator gene, virus nuclcic acid, cannot

react with any other substance and cannot induce activity in the structural

gene, therefore inhibiting the multiplication of new virus bodies.223

Writing in an early article published in the Journal of Southern Medicine

and Surgery, he ascribes the relative limitations in success as attained in

much of the earlier experimental results with Vitamin C, to the very low

dosage levels used. Conversely, the key to his unprecedented clinical

achievements lay in the much higher dosage he administered. He comments:

The years of labor in animal experimentations; the cost in human effort and

" grants, and the volumes written, make it difficult to understand how so

many investigators could have failed in comprehending the one thing that

would have given positive results [i.e., to the degree Klenner attained] a

decade ago. This one thing was the size and frequency of its

administration. 224

In the same article he goes on to describe:

a measles epidemic in which " Vitamin C was used prophylactically, " in which

without exception all who received 1 gram every six hours either

intravenously or intramuscularly " were protected from the virus. "

In treating 60 acute cases of poliomyelitis, (in a number, the diagnosis

was confirmed by lumbar puncture, with cell counts ranging from 33 to 125)

for the first 24 hours, 1 to 2 grams depending on age--of Vitamin C was

administered every second to fourth hour (intramuscularly in children up to

four years). For the following 48 hour period the 1 to 2 gram dosage was

given only every sixth hour, with all 60 patients diagnosed " clinically

well " within 72 hours from the commencement of treatment.

Six cases of virus encephalitis were similarly treated with Vitamin C

injections, and all without exception made dramatic recoveries.

Diphtheria was successfully treated using the same intensive treatment

method " in half the time required to remove the membrane and get negative

smears by antitoxin.225

Summarily, Klenner could well affirm that " we have been able to assemble

sufficient clinical evidence to prove unequivocally that Vitamin C is the

antibiotic of choice in the handling of all types of virus diseases. " As

well he demonstrated--through trial and experimentation--that where tissue

levels of the vitamin are maintained, an environment that is extremely

unfavourable for virtually all forms of viral infection is created in the

human body.226

II. Bacterial Infections

Within five years of the discovery of Vitamin C, research studies were

being published in the medical literature on the clear association between

scurvy and the prescorbutic state (both evidencing Vitamin C deficiency) to

a range of infections (both bacterial and viral) in guinea pigs and humans.227

Beginning in this same time period other applied researchers discovered

that ascorbic acid has both bacteriostatic (inhibiting) and bactericidal

(destroying) properties. For example, researchers Gupta and Guha,

demonstrated that 2 milligram percent (2 mg% is equivalent to 2 parts of

ascorbic acid to 100,000 parts of bacterial suspension) inhibited

staphylococcus aureus, and B. typhosus. The same inhibitive effect was

produced at 5 mg% for B. diphtheria, and streptococcus hemolyticus.228

Whereas Sirsi reported that 10 mg% was sufficient to destroy virulent

strains of M. tuberculosis.229 Other researchers found that ascorbic acid

was effective in completely neutralizing and rendering harmless a wide

variety of bacterial toxins. These included: diphtheria--Jungeblut and

Zwemer,230 tetanus Jungeblut; 231 staphylococcus--Kodama and Kojima; 232

and dysentery--Takahashi. 233

In a revealing nutritional status survey conducted close to mid-century on

the aboriginal population in Northern Manitoba (Canada), it was found that

the most prevalent micro-nutrient deficiency was Vitamin C, i.e., on

average less than 1/71 the recommended daily allowance. At the time, the

death rate from tuberculosis among this group stood at 1,400 per 100,000 in

comparison to 27 per 100,000 in the white population. The researchers

concluded " . . . it is probable that the Indian's great susceptibility to

many diseases, paramount amongst which is tuberculosis, may be attributable

.. . . to their high degree of malnutrition arising from lack of proper

foods.234

Charpy reports on a clinical trial where 15 grams (15,000 milligrams) of

ascorbic acid were administered daily to a group of extremely advanced

(terminal) Tuberculosis patients. (Of the six to be tested one actually

died before the trial could begin). The five patients who were fortunate

enough to receive this treatment, all underwent a spectacular

transformation in their general condition, and not only left their beds,

but within a six to eight month period had regained from 20 to 70 pounds in

body weight. As an added point of interest, each patient had cumulatively

taken about 3 kilograms (3,000,000 milligrams) of ascorbic acid during the

test period with absolute safety and perfect tolerance.235

Hochwald employed injections of 1/2 gram of ascorbic acid every

one-and-a-half hours (6 grams in a 12 hour period) in croupous pneumonia

until the fever and local symptoms subsided. The speed with which this

treatment worked was so rapid that it was actually possible within the

first day to practically eliminate all local symptoms of infection

including the fever, and to attain a normalization of blood counts.236

Two articles in the Canadian Medical Association Journal reported on oral

Vitamin C therapy i.e., 1/2 gram the first day, followed by an average

1/5gram each day thereafter--on 29 pertussis (whooping cough) patients. The

researchers concluded that " this treatment markedly decreases the

intensity, number and duration of the characteristic symptoms.237

In DeWit's clinical experimentation in the Netherlands 1/2 gram of ascorbic

acid was administered daily in the treatment of children with pertussis for

a period of one week, after which it was gradually reduced stepwise. Of the

90 children treated (who were divided into 3 comparable groups) the

duration of the illness was 15 days for those receiving the injections, 20

days for oral recipients, and 34 days for the control group who did not

receive the vitamin in any form, but had alternately received the newly

developed vaccine.238

Other clinical trials on the reversal of human bacterial infections by

ascorbic acid exist in the biomedical literature, e.g., in the treatment of

leprosy, typhoid fever and dysentery. In these various reports, without

exception, the level of success as reported correlates directly with the

amount of dosage administered.239

III. Phagocytotic Activity

From an historical perspective, it is of interest that as early as 1943

Cotingham and Mills demonstrated the necessity for the presence of ascorbic

acid in maintaining defensive phagocytotic activity.240 It appears that

their important discovery remained largely unknown. However, three decades

later the rediscovery and public pronouncement of this same finding by

DeChatelet et al, did at least generate wide newspaper coverage, if not any

real impact on medical practice.241

IV. Conclusion

Not unlike earlier clinicians who employed Vitamin C prophylactically and

therapeutically, R. Catheart's extensive clinical experience led him to

conclude that proportional to the level of ascorbic acid depletion, there

would follow human immune system failure, consequently increasing the

susceptibility and potential manifestation of a wide range of disorders

including various acute, secondary, and chronic infections (viral and

bacterial), allergic reactions, inflammatory and collagen diseases, as well

as an impaired ability to heal.242

It was the Noble Prize Laureate Linus ing who made the observation that:

I have been astonished . . . that in the last quarter of the twentieth

century a single substance would be recognized to be helpful no matter what

disease a person is suffering from. . . . Vitamin C is such a substance . .

.. by its involvement in many biochemical reactions in the human body it

makes the body's natural defenses more powerful, and it is these natural

defenses that provide most of our resistance to disease.243

In considering the practical implications and strategic importance of the

knowledge of Vitamin C relative to the issue of child survival in the

Developing World, it would be worthwhile to conclude this discussion of

Vitamin C with the following summarization of Canadian Physician W.

McConnick.

From increasing evidence of the anti-toxic and anti-infectious action of

Vitamin C, and from personal clinical experience in the prophylactic and

therapeutic application of this vitamin, the author is firmly convinced

that the major factor in bringing about . . . [the major decline in]

infectious disease incidence has been the steady and phenomenal increase in

the consumption of Vitamin C-rich fruits . . . during the period in question.

In many cases of deficiency, where the dietary intake indicates a subnormal

intake of Vitamin C over a lengthy period, the correlated clinical history

shows repeated occurrence of infectious processes. . . . The author has

made intensive application of Vitamin C therapy, orally and parenterally,

in many . . . infectious diseases . . . with results in every case even

more rapid and favorable than could be expected from the use of the modern

antibiotics, and with the added advantage of complete exemption from toxic

or allergic reactions. 244

A New and Better Strategy

From the foregoing evidence it is clear that a markedly greater emphasis on

the development of home, school, and community horticultural and gardening

crop production of Vitamin A and C rich foods designed to increase local

consumption--coupled to appropriate cormnunity nutrition education

campaigns, could in and of itself make significant inroads in reversing the

phenomena of infectious disease in today's Developing World.

GENERAL CONCLUSION ON APPROPRIATE ALTERNATIVES

To summarize and conclude the vital issue of what constitutes a more

appropriate policy alternative in the effective prevention of human

disease--whether infectious or degenerative--we must return to what are the

original and thus fundamentally legitimate sources of health immune system

success. There is indeed an abundance of evidence confirming the fact that

multiple lifestyle factors are not only effective in preventing and

reversing degenerative diseases, but the full range of infectious diseases

as well. Having already reviewed two key nutrient factors in relation to

the prevention and cure of infections, what follows is a concise

cross-sampling of research demonstrating the role of other lifestyle and

nutrition factors in strengthening natural immunity.

Evidence suggests that physical exercise can enhance natural killer cell

ftinction; and elevate interferon, serum leukocyte, and interleukin-1

levels. (Interleukin-1 enhances both B and T lymphocyte activity and is

involved in the body's initial response to infection and inflammation; 245

while interferon is known to arrest the reproduction of viruses, and is

vital in reversing many forms of viral infection including hepatitis,

chicken pox, herpes simplex and zoster etc.246

Recent studies have documented that even sub-clinical levels of

" malnutrition and deficiencies of vitamins, minerals and trace elements "

have been linked to the " impairment of immune responses.247

A reduction in dietary fat in humans, correlates with a strengthening of

natural killer cell activity.248 It has also been shown in vitro that

polyunsaturated fats weaken lymphocyte ability to respond to antigens.249

Even brief periods of sleep deprivation (7 hours) have been linked to

dramatic decreases in basic host immune responses.250

" Stressful conditions can profoundly suppress immune responses of blood and

splenic lymphocytes, including T-cell mitogenesis, natural killer cell

activity, production of interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon, and IL-2

receptor expression. " 251

Bodily exposure to ultraviolet rays as found in natural sunlight,

significantly strengthens the immune system. For example:

* It increases the number of lymphocytes, antibodies (mostly gamma

globulins), and lymphocyte produced interferon. As well, the effectiveness

of neutrophils in engulfing bacteria can be at least doubled; 252

* A 12 year study of male college students revealed that only 10 minutes of

irradiation with ultra violet light, up to 3 times weekly during the winter

months, reduced colds by up to 40.3 percent; 253 under similar treatment

during Winter, there was observed a greatly increased resistance to a range

of infectious diseases in Russian children.254

* Truly dramatic results have been and can be achieved in treating a broad

range of both viral and bacterial associated diseases.255

* The current medical concept pictures a sun that is destructive to human

health, i.e., responsible for accelerating the aging of the skin, and the

prime causative factor behind the now endemic onset of skin cancers.

However, extensively documented research on the health effects of both

sunlight and nutrition by Kime clearly point to the fact that " the highly

refined western diet plays the leading role, both in the aging process and

in the development of skin cancer.256

Alcohol is an " immunosuppressive drug with far reaching consequences, "

e.g., it interferes significantly with antibacterial defense, and adversely

affects cell-mediated immunity, thereby increasing risks for viral

infections, tuberculosis, and neoplasia (tumor formation).257 Alcohol

inhibits the normal function of B lymphocytes, with as little as 3 ounces

(2 drinks) reducing antibody production to1/3 normal amounts.258 It has

been documented that there is increased susceptibility to HIV (AIDS

associated virus), with the virus growing more rapidly when even moderate

intake levels (e.g., 4 beers) are taken, immune suppression lasting 3-7

hours with T-cells producing less interleukin-2, and T-suppresser cells

producing less of the soluble immune response suppression factor.259

Smoking of cigarettes weakens host defenses against bacteria and viruses,

including the impairment of macrophage function.260

Table G on the following page provides a fully rational explication of the

dynamic processes and factors determining health (natural immunity) and

disease. In reviewing this table, we may safely conclude that our

individual and collective states of " health " and " disease " depends

essentially upon our understanding of and respect for nature. Indeed we

must come to the ultimate realization that it is in the very best interest

of humankind to seek and to obey the voice of nature, with the assurance

that the consequences of this commitment will be sound and lasting health

of both body and mind.

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Table G -- Psycho-Physiological Integrity-The Health and Disease Continuum

Life healing--i.e., vital systemic cleansing, balancing, reparative and

renewal processes--with varied infectious disease symptoms being severe and

acute manifestations are continuously at work, at all stages from the

highest level of functioning and on downward to the point of death. The

efficacy of these healing processes depend solely upon the appropriate and

moderate provision of the following primal and lawful requisites of human

life.

Air (pure, with electrically balanced ion levels)

Water (in potable form, employed for bodily--internal and

external--cleansing, and environmental sanitation)

Sunlight (early morning and late afternoon, including regular exposure to

living quarters)

Exercise (physical, mental, social and spiritual faculties)

Rest (physiological and psycho-emotional)

Sound Nutrition (i.e., a balanced variety of unrefined and unadulterated

plant foods derived from mineral rich-living soil)

Positive Thinking (including positive/constructive motives, emotions and

relationships)

Psycho-Bio-Physical lntegrity depends upon the foregoing requisites,

coupled with: sound heredity; non-abuse of the central nervous system; and

general freedom from adverse influences, e.g., chemicals, drugs, radiation,

foreign antigens, trauma and physical injuries. Whether through inheritance

[i.e., pre-dispositional weaknesses] or in one's own life, DENIAL OF THESE

BASIC LIFE REQUISITES, OR THE INTRUSION OF THESE ADVERSE INFLUENCES,

CONSTITUTES THE PRIMARY AND SUSTAINING CAUSES UNDERLING THE MULTIPLE

SYMPTOMS OF PSYCHO-BIO-PHYSICAL DEGENERATION (PHYSICAL AND MENTAL DISEASE).

The distinction between " prevention " and " cure " is an artificially

contrived notion and does not exist in nature, viz. the self-same primal,

i.e., original causes by which systemic (psychophysiological) health is

maintained, also serve as the only sound measures by which lost health can

be restored.

Compliance with primary psycho-physiological laws ensures an increase and

strengthening of inherent vital force and immunity leading to High Level

Healtlh.

Death > Degeneration > Impairment > Low > Medium > High health

Non-Compliance with primary psycho-physiological laws ensures a weakening

of inherent vital force and immunity, leading to Degeneratlon and Death

Death < Degeneration < Impairment < Low < Medium < High Health

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CONCLUSION

Belief in artificially induced immunization is actually predicated on an

assumed technological ability to annul the natural bio-system laws of cause

and effect. It is in essence an imaginative belief that we can improve upon

nature's original design and purpose through deceitfully manipulating her

to our own heedless benefit. It would be fitting at this point to quote

from Kime:

We may believe that we are responsible to nothing but our own pleasure,

that we may freely violate and disregard natural law and then artificially

manipulate the deleterious consequences. We may believe that we can eat

poorly, sleep rarely, work constantly, exercise sparingly, and avoid any

physical consequences by some wonder drug. . . It requires no discipline

and no sacrifice. . . .

[However] For all our advances in science, we still remain humbly,

pitifully dependent upon the forces of nature: air, water, food, and

sunlight. It seems in fact, the more advanced our technology becomes, the

more capable we are of destroying ourselves . . . by more insidious inroads

into our health.261

Finally, it is indeed incontrovertible that the only sure answer to the

frightening dilemma that indiscriminately employed artificial universal

childhood immunization now poses, is a counter-public health policy which

supports a studied and respectful return to the original and immutable laws

of life and health, thus encouraging people of all nations to return to the

grand design as embodied in the creation by an all wise Creator.

REFERENCES

***Note: Some may understandably raise the concern that a number of the

references cited are not directly related to Development and the Developing

World, and secondly are not uniformly recent. In response to this point, it

remains obvious that the conventions of Western Selective Medicine are

inherently predicated on a Western perspective of health and disease.

Consequently it seems only consistent and apropos that Western based

applied research and experience can and should be brought to bear in any

serious effort to constructively examine these areas.

On the issue of the how recent the data is, it is one of the foibles of

Westernized thinking (particularly in the medical field) that unless an

observation or a practice is very recent, it should be held suspect as

being obsolete and due for relegation to the trash can. 'Ibis view is

correct only insofar as erroneous concepts undergird a system, and faulty

theories and ever changing practices have no better foundation than

unanchored and footloose empiricism. More precise sciences such as

astronomy, and physics continue to heavily utilize and build upon older

research sources and practices, some even going back over many centuries.

The reason this is so, is because insofar as the principle ---> practice

----> observation continuum is correct and valid, the data remains

unchanging and unaffected by the vagaries of both time and circumstances.

1 World Health Organization, Publication No. 6, Rev. 1, Geneva,

Switzerland, June, 1983.

2 Etherington, A., & Associates, Assessment of the CIDA Health

Sector--Profile of Health Project Disbursements 1984-1988, prepared for

CIDA Policy Branch, Evaluation Division; and Health Section, Professional

Services Branch, Hull, Canada, February, 1989, Executive Summary, p. iv.

3 Hawes, F. et at, Canada's International Immunization

Programme--Operational Review 1986-1991, Final Report, Intercultural

International, prepared for: ICDS; and CIDA, Ottawa, Canada, November,

1989, Summary P. 1, and Main Report p. 37

4 Etherington, A., Assessment of the CIDA Health Sector Integrated Paper,

prepared for: CIDA Policy Branch, Evaluation Division; and Health Sector,

Professional Services Branch, Hull, Canada, February, 1989, p. 16.

5 Ibid, Executive Sunnnary, p. v.

6 Bloom, B.R., " Vaccines for the Third World, " World Health, World Health

Organization, Geneva Switzerland, June-July-August, 1990, p. 14.

See also:

Nature, Vol. 342, November, 1989.

7 lbid, p. 13.

8 Grant, J., " Simple, Available and Effective Interventions, " A Shift in

the Wind, Vol. 18, UNICEF, May, 1984,p. 7.

9 The LJN Department of Public Information and the United Nations

University, " The Immunization Success Story " in Development Forum, Vol.

XVI, No. 1, January-February, 1988, Cover Page Story.

10 Etherington, A., Assessment of the CIDA Health Sector--Integrated Paper,

p. 3.

11 Fulginiti, V.A., " Immunization: Current Controversies, " The Journal of

Pediatrics, Vol. 101, No. 4, 1982, p.487.

12 UNICEF Thailand, " Progress Report on the Utilization of the Contribution

of $8,220,000 Cdn--Integrated Services Project for Children, " Bangkok,

Thailand, March 21, 1988.

13 Mathurosapas, R., Factors Associated with High and Low EPI Coverage in

Thailand, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, Thailand, 1986.

14 World Health Organization, Expanded Programme of Immunization

Immunization Policy, WHO-EPI-General, Rev. 1, Geneva, Switzerland, July, 1986.

15 Dick, G., Practical Immunization, MTP Press Ltd., (a member of the

Kluwer Academic Publishers Group), Falcon House, Lancaster, England, 1986,

pp. 2-5.

16 lbid, pp. 29-77.

17 Chetelat, L.J., A Synthesis of Key Issues for Evaluation in Primary

Health Care, Food and Nutrition and Expanded Programs of Immunization,

prepared for Canadian International Development Agency, Policy Branch,

Evaluation Division, Hull, Canada, January, 1990, pp. 139 142.

18 Dick, G., Immununization, Update Books, London, England, 1978

See also:

Dick, G., Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, Vol. 167, 1974, pp.

371-374

Hill, L., " Primary Immunization Deficiency in Children, " Thorax 25, 1970,

p. 254

Bousfield, G. " Reactions to Immunization, " British Medical Journal,

February 23, 1974, P. 327

Dettman, G., " Aboriginal Infant Health and Mortality Rates, " The Medical

Journal of Australia, April 7, 1973, pp. 711 and 712

Kalokerinos, A., Every Second Child, , Australia, 1981

Vessal, S., and Kravis, L., " Imunologic Mechanisms Responsible for Adverse

Reactions to Routine Immunizations in Children, " Clinical Pediatrics, Vol.

15, No. 8, 1976, pp. 688-696

19 Kalokerinos, A., and Dettman, G., " Viral Vaccines Vital or Vulnerable, "

The Australasian Nurses Journal, August, 1980, p. 27

20 Guthrie, C., UNICEF Canada's " Field Trip Monitoring Report on The

Integrated Services Project for Children, " observations covering Nakhan

Phenom and Mudaban provinces, January 16, 1989, p. 44

21 Noble, G.R., et at, " Acellular and Wbole-Cell Pertussis Vaccines in

Japan: Report of a Visit by US Scientists. " Journal of the American Medical

Association, Vol. 257, 1987, pp. 1351-1356

22 Chetelat, L.J., A Synthesis of Key Issues for Evaluation in Primary

Health Care, p. 159. Also, Personal Communications with the International

Development Research Centre's Health Sciences Division, September-October,

1989

23 on, J.W., Assessing and Improving Health Outcomes: The Health

Accountinig Approach to Quality Assurance, Ballinger Publishing Co.,

Cambridge, 1978, p. 5

24 Dick, G., Practical Immunization, p. 1

25 Cheraskin, E., et at, Diet and Disease--Medical Proof of Their Life and

Death Relationship, Keats Publishing Inc., New Canaan, Connecticut, Health

Science Edition pub., 1977, p. 369

See also:

Chandra, R., " Nutrition as a Critical Determinant in Susceptibility to

Infection, " World Review--Nutr. Diet, Vol. 25, 1976

Hook, R., and Hutcheson, D., " Impairment of the Primary Inunune Response in

Early-Onset Protein-Calorie Malnutrition, " Nutrition Reports International,

Vol. 13, 1976

, D., et at, " Long Term Effects on Immune Function of Early Nutritional

Deprivation, " Nature, Vol. 241, 1973

Moscatelli, P., et al, " Defective Immunocompetence in Fetal Undemutrition, "

Helvetica Paediatrica Acta, Vol. 31, 1976

Newberne, P., and Gebhardt, B., " Pre- and Post-Natal Malnutrition and

Responses to Infection, " Nutrition Reports International, Vol. 7, 1973

Puffer, R., and Serrano, C., " The Role of Nutritional Deficiency in

Mortality Findings of the Inter-American Investigation of Mortality in

Childhood, " Pan American Health Orizanization, Vol. 7, 1973

McGrath, W.R., Bio-Nutronics, A Signet Book, New American Library, Times

Mirror, Bergenfield, New Jersey, 1972, P. 216

Hoffer, A., and , M., Orthomolecular Nutrition, Keats Publishing

Inc., New Canaan, Conneticut, 1978, P. 209

McDougall, J.A., A Challenging Second Opinion, New Century Publishers Inc.,

Piscataway, New Jersey, USA, 1985, p. 307, etc.

26-Edierington, A., Vol. I--Program Evaluation of Canada's International

Immunization Program, Cowater International, for the Canadian International

Development Agency, Ottawa, March, 199 1, pp. 22 and 30

27 Banerji, D., " Hidden Menace in the Universal Child Immunization

Program, " International Journal of Health Services, Vol. 18, No. 2, Haywood

Pub. Co. Inc., 1988, p. 294

28 Chetelat., L.J., A Synthesis of Key Issues for Evaluation In Primarv

Health Care, (based on the author's precis on Banedi's " Hidden Menace "

article), P. 157

29 Banerji, D., " Hidden Menace in the Universal Child Immunization

Program, " p. 296

30 Rifken, S.B., and Walt, G., " Why Health Improves: Defining The Issues

Concerning 'Comprehensive Primary Health Care' and 'Selective Primary

Health Care,' " Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 23, pp. 562 and 563.

31 Chetelat, L.J., A Synthesis of Key Issues for Evaluation in PHC, P. 156

32 , G., British Medical Journal, January 31, 1976, reprinted in The

Australasian Nurses Journal by Dettman, G., and Kalokerinos, A., in the

article " 'Mumps' the word but you have yet another vaccine deficiency, "

June, 1981, p. 17

33 " Immunization Public Health Protector?, " Issued under NIB National

Office of Health Development, Ottawa, Canada, 1979, pp. 1 and 2

34 Bumet, M., Auto Immunity and Auto Immunune Disease, MTP, London,

England, 1973, Chapter 3

35 , W., Immunization--The Reality Behind The Myth, Bergin & Garvey

Publishers Inc., S. Hadley, Massachussetts, 1988, p. 64, refers to original

source reference: Report No. 272, British Medical Council, London, England,

May, 1950

36 Allan, B., Australian Journal of Medical Technology, Vol. 4, November,

1973, pp. 26 and 27]

see also:

Dettman, G., and Kalokerinos, A., " Second Thoughts About Disease--A

Controversy and Bechamp Revisited, " Journal of the International Academy of

Preventive Medicine, Vol. IV, No. 1, Houston, Texas, July, 1977 and

reprinted by Committee of the Biological Research Institute, Warburton,

, Australia, (p. 15 in this reprint edition)

37 Polk, B.F., et al, " An Outbreak of Rubella (German Measles) among

Hospital Personnel, " The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 303, No. 10,

September 4, 1980, pp. 541-545

38 , W., Immunization, p. 100

39 " Immunization Public Health Protector?, " pp. 10 and 11

40 Shelton, H., " Basis of Resistance, " the Hygienic Review, Vol. 38, No. 9,

May, 1977, P. 196

See also:

" Immunization Public Health Protector?, " p. 1 1

41 , W., Immunization, p. 64

42 Novikoff, A., and Holtzman, E., Cells and Organelles, Holt, Rinehart and

Winston Inc., 1970

See also:

Bradbury, S., The Optical Microscope, Arnold Pub. Ltd., 1976

Lacey, A., Editor, Light Microscopes in Biology, A Practical Approach, IRL

Press, Oxford University Press, 1989

43 Bird, C., " The Rife Microscope, " Technology Tomorrow, February, 1980,

pp. 5-14

44 Seidel, R.E., and Winter, E., " The New Microscopes, " Journal of the

lin Institute, Vol. 237, No. 2, February, 1944, pp. 103-130

See also:

Lee, R., " The Rife Microscope or 'Facts and Their Fate,' " Lee Foundation

for Nutritional Research, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA (commentary on the

Seidel and Winter article, undated)

" Local Man Bares Wonders of Germ Life, " San Diego Union, November 3, 1929

" Science's Latest Strides in War on Ills Disclosed, Development by San

Diegan Hailed as Boon to Medical Research, " Los Angeles Times, November 22,

1931

" Here is Most Powerful Microscope, " Los Angeles Times, November 27, 1931

" What's New in Science--The Wonderwork of 193 I, " Los Angeles Times Sunday

-Magazine, December 27, 1931

, Newell, " Rife Bares Startling New Conceptions of Disease Germs, " San

Diego Tribune, May 11, 1938

" Giant Microscope May Yield Secrets of Bacteria World, " Los Angeles Times,

June 26, 1940

Lynes, B., and Crane, J., The Rife Report, The Cancer Cure That

Worked--Fifiy Years of Supression, Marcus Books, Toronto, Canada, 1987

45 Carrel, A., Man the Unknown, Harper Brothers, New York and London, 1935,

p. 207

46 Dubos, R., " Second Thoughts on the Germ Theory, " Scientific American,

May, 1955, pp. 31-35

47 Dubos, R., Mirage of Health, Harper, New York, NY, 1959, p. 73

48 Maxcy-Rosenaw Preventive Medicine and Public Health, edited by Sartwell,

P.E., 10th Edition, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, USA, 1973, p. 117

49 Buttram, H.E., and Hoffman, J.C., Vaccinations and Immune Malfunction,

The Humanitarian Publishing Co., Quakertown, Penn., USA, 1985, p. 22

50 Duesberg, P.H., " Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired

Immunodeficiency Syndrome: Correlation but Not Causation, " Proceedings of

the National Academy of Science USA, Vol. 86, February, 1989, pp. 755-764;

Interview [with Duesberg], " AIDS " , Spectrum, No. 38, September/October,

1994, Belmont, New Hampshire, USA, pp. 26-34

See also:

, J., AIDS, The HIV Myth, St. 's Press, New York, NY, 1989

Fumento, M., The Myth of Heterosexual AIDS: How a Tragedy has been

Distorted bv Media and Partisan Politics, Basic Books, New York, NY, 1990

Duesberg, P., " AIDS Acquired By Drug Consuption and Other Non-Contagious

Risk Factors, " Pharmac. Ther. No. 55, United Kingdom, pp. 201-277, 1992

(This article contains 17 pages of reference citations.)

DeMeo, J., " HIV is Not the Cause of AIDS: A Summary of Current Research

Findings, " Pulse of the Planet, No. 4, 1993, pp. 99-105

Root-Bernstein, R., Rethinking AIDS: The Tragic Cost of Premature

Consensus, Free Press, New York, NY, 1993

51 Sonnabend, J.A., " Fact and Speculaton About The Cause of AIDS, " AIDS

Forum, Vol. 2, No. 1, New York, May, 1989, pp. 3-12

52 , W., Immnunization, pp. 55-87

53 Ibid, (modified and adapted from--Table 1, " Two Theories of Disease, " P.

65)

54 McCormick, W.J., " Vitamin C in the Prophylaxis and Therapy of Infectious

Diseases, " Archives of Pediatrics, Vol. 68, No. 1, January, 1951

See also:

McCormick, " The Changing Incidence and Mortality of Infectious Disease in

Relation to Changed Trends in Nutrition, " The Medical Record, September,

1947, reprinted by the Lee Foundation for Nutritional Research, Milwaukee,

Wisconsin, USA

55 Table I--Data presented at the British Association for the Advancement

of Sciences (Presidential Address), in The Dangers of Immunization, The

Humanitarian Society, Quakertown Penn., USA, 1979; source cited: Porter 1971

56 Table II--McKeown, T., The Role of Medicine--Dream, Mirage, or Nemesis?,

Basil Blackwell, Oxford, UK, 1979, p. 103

57 Table III--lbid p. 105 and data from Waltzkin, H., " ...Analysis of the

Health Care Systems of Advanced Capitalist Societies, " in The Relevance of

Social Science for Medicine, edited by Eisenberg, L., and Kleinman, A.,

1980; source cited: Kass, 1971

58 Table IV--Based on McKeown, T., The Role of Medicine--Dream, Mirage, or

Nemesis?, Princeton University Press, 1979, p. 104

59 Table V--Based on , R., Medicine Out of Control, Sun Books,

Melbourne, 1979, Figure 1.1, p. 9 and text p. 8; source cited; Australian

Bureau of Census and Statistics, Demography Bulletins, Canberra, Australia

60 Table VI--The Dangers of Immunization; source cited: Dingle, J.,

Scientific American, 1973

61 Table VII--Based on , R., Medicine Out of Control. Figure 1.2, p.

11; source cited: Crofton, J. and , A., " Epidemiology and Prevention

of Pulmonary Tuberculosis, " in Respiratory Diseases, Blackwell Scientific

Publications, Oxford, UK, 1969; and data from McKeown, T., The Role of

Medicine, (Basil Blackwell edition) p. 92

62 Table VIII--Based on Hoole, F.W., Evaluation Research and Development

Activities. Sage Publications, Newberry Park, California, Figure 2.3, p. 58

63 Table IX--Ekanem, E.E., " A 10 Year Review of Morbidity from Childhood

Preventable Diseases in Nigeria: How Successful is the Expanded Programme

of Immunization (EPI)? " Department of Community Health, College of

Medicine, University of Lagos, Nigeria, published in Journal of Tropical

Pediatrics, Vol. 34, Oxford University Press, England, 1988, Figure 1, p. 324

64 Table X--Ibid

65 Table XI--Based on , R., Medicine Out of Control, Figure 1.3, p.

12; sources cited: Glover, J., " Incidence of Rheumatic Diseases, " Lancet,

1:499, 1930; and WHO, Geneva, " Annual Epidemiological and Vital Statistics

1950-196 I, " World Health Annual Statistical Reports (causes of death)

1962-1975

66 Table XII--Based on Waltzkin, H., " . . . Analysis of the Health Care

Systems. "

67 Table XIII--Epidemiology data for years 1978-1987 taken from UNICEF

Evaluation Publication No. 6, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, May 27,

1988; and data for years 1988 and 1989, obtained in personal communication

from the Pan American Health Organization, EPI Unit, August 21, 1990

68 Table XIV--Ibid

69 Table XV--Ibid

70 Table XVI--Ibid

71 Table XVII--Ibid

72 Table XVIII--Ibid

73 Mendelsohn, R., " The Medical Time Bomb of Immununization Against

Disease, " East West Journal, November, 1984, p. 51

74 Mendelsohn, R., " The Truth About Immunizations, " The People's Doctor--A

Medical Newsletter for Consumers, Vol. 2, No. 4, ton, Illinois, p. 6

75 Morton, A.R., " The Diptheria Epidemic in Halifax, " Canadian Medical

Association Journal, Vol. 45, 1941, p. 171

76 McCormick, W.J., " The Changing Incidence and Mortality of Infectious

Disease in Relation to Changed Trends in Nutrition, " The Medical Record,

Toronto, Canada, September, 1947, Reprint No. 5a, Lee Foundation for

Nutritional Research, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA, p. 4

77 Eller, C.H., and Frobisher, M. Jr., " An Outbreak of Diptheria in

Baltimore in 1944, " American Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 42, 1945, P. 179

78 Dettman, G., and Kalokerinos, A., " Second Thoughts About Disease, " p. 16

79 Cournoyer, C., What About Immunization? A Parent's Guide to Informed

Decision Making, Private Research Publication, Canby, Oregon, USA, 4th

Edition, 1987, p. 5

80 Clymer, E.M., et al, The Dangers of Immunization, The Humanitarian

Society, Quakertown, Penn., USA, 1983 Edition, p 47

See also:

Neustaedter, R., The Immunization Decision--A Guide for Parents, The Family

Health Series, North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, California, 1990, pp. 50 and

51

81 , W., Immunization, p. 31

82 Cournoyer, C., What About Immunizations?, p. 5

83 Ekanem, E.E., " A 10 Year Review of Morbidity from Childhood Preventable

Diseases in Nigeria, " Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, Vol. 34, December,

1988, p. 325

84 Dayton, L., " Measles Vaccination May Not Protect for Life, " New

Scientist, Vol. 4, Vancouver, Canada, November, 1989, p. 6

85 Shasby, D.M., et al, " Epidemic Measles in a Highly Vaccinated

Population, " New England Journal of Medicine, 296: 1987, pp. 585-589

See also:

Gustafson, T.L., et at, " Measles Outbreak in a Fully Immunized Secondary

School Population, " New England Journal of Medicine, 316: 1987, pp. 771-774

Weiner, L.B., et al, " A Measles Outbreak Among Adolescents, " Journal of

Tropical Pediatrics, Vol. 90, 1987, pp. 17-20

Hull, H.F., et al, " Risk Factors for Measles Vaccine Failure Among

Immunized Students, " Pediatrics, Vol. 76, 1985, pp. 518-523

86 Mendelsohn, R., " The Medical Time Bomb of Immunization Against Disease, "

p. 43

87 Markowitz, L.E., " Patterns of Transmission in Measles Outbreaks in the

United States, " New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 320, 1989, pp. 75-81

88 " Measles--Quebec " MMWR (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report), Vol. 38

(a), 1989, pp. 329 and 330

89 Kalokerinos, A., and Dettman, G., Viral Vaccines, Vital or Vulnerable,

published by: The Conunittee of the Biological Research Institute,

Warburton, , Australia, p. 27. (Note article of same title--but

different content--is also referenced in the August, 1980 issue of the

Australasian Nurses Journal)

90 Kenya, P.R., " Measles and Mathematics: Control or Eradication, " (Kenya

Medical Research Institute, Nairobi) East African Medical Journal, Vol. 67,

No. 12, December, 1990

91 Wixen, J.S., " Twentieth-Century Miraclemaker, " Modem Maturity, December,

1984-January, 1985, p. 92

92 Hearings Before the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Connnerce, House

of Representatives, " Eighty-Seventh Congress, Second Session on HR 10541,

May, 1962, pp. 94-112

See also:

The American Journal of Public Health, Vol.45, Sup.1-63,1955

93 Section Panel on " Preventive Medicine and Preventive Health " at the 120 "

Annual Meeting of the Illinois State Medical Society, May 26,

1960--reported in the Illinois Medical Journal, August and September

issues, 1960

94 , W., Inununization, p. 28

95 Ibid

96 Neustaedter, R., et al, Immunizations, Are They Necessary?, Hering

Family Health Clinic, Berkeley, California, 1981, p. 19

See also:

Delarue, F., L'intoxication vaccinate, Editions de Seuil, Paris France,

1977, p. 57

97 US House of Representatives, Hearings on HR 10541, p. 113. (Reported in

the Toorak Times, Melbourne Australia, October 5, 1986)

98 Mendelsohn, R., " The Medical Time Bomb of Immunization Against Disease, "

p. 52

99 Sutter, R., et al, " Outbreak of Paralytic Poliomyelites in Oman.

Evidence for Widespread Transmission Among Fully Vaccinated Children, "

Lancet, Vol. 338, September, 1991, pp. 715-720

See also:

Patriarca, et al, " Randomised Trial of Alternative Formulations of Oral

Poliovaccine in Brazil, " Lancet, February, 1988, pp. 429-432

Kim-Farley, R., et al, " Outbreak of Paralytic Poliomyelitis in Taiwan, "

Lancet No. 11, 1984, pp. 1322-1324

Deniing, M., et al, " Epidemic Poliomyelitis in the Gambia Following Control

of Poliomyelitis as an Endemic Disease: Part 11. The Clinical Efficacy of

Trivalent Oral Polio Vaccine, " American Journal of Epidemiology, (in press)

100 Fulginiti, V., " Controversies in Current Immunization Practices: One

Physician's Viewpoint, " 1976, in , J.A., Statement Submitted to US

Senate Committee on Labor and Human Relations. Subcomniittee on

Investigations and General Oversight, June 30, 1982. (Dr. served as

Director of the Slow, Latent, and Temperant Virus Section of the US Bureau

of Biologics, Food and Drug Administration)

101 , G.T., British Medical Journal, January 31, 1976

See also:

, G.T., " Vaccination Against Whooping Cough: Efficiency vs. Risks, "

Lancet, 1977, p. 234

102 Medical Tribune, January 10, 1979, p. 1

103 Ekanem E.E., " A 10 Year Review of Morbidity from Childhood Preventable

Diseases in Nigeria, " Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, Vol. 34, p. 325,

December, 1988

104 Neustaedter, R.,The Immunization Decision, p. 32

105 Cournoyer, C., What About Immunizations? p. 12

106 lbid

107 , DM., " Fatal Tetanus After Prophylaxis with Human Tetanus,

Imnune Globulin, " Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 207,

1969, p. 1519

108 Cournoyer, C., What About Immunizations? p. 12

109 Epidemiology data for years 1978-1987 taken from UNICEF Evaluation

Publication No. 6, May 27, 1988; and data for years 1988 and 1989, obtained

from the Pan American Health Organization, EPI Unit, August 21, 1990

110 Buttram, H.E., and Hofftnan, J.C., " Bringing Vaccines Into

Perspective, " (reference to " vaccines, a therapy in question, " Theropocia,

June, 1981, p. 23) Mothering, Vol. 34, Winter Edition, 1985, p. 43

111 Creighton, C., " Vaccination, " Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia

Brittanica, pp. 29 and 30

112 Dettman, G., and Kalokerinos, A., " Viral Vaccines Vital or Vulnerable, "

Australasian Nurses Journal, August, 1980, p. 30

113 Ibid, p. 29

114 " Natural History of Smallpox, " in the New Scientist, November, 1978, p. 30

115 Dettman, G., and Kalokerinos, A., " Viral Vaccines, " p. 29

116 Hoole, F.W., Evaluation Research and Development Activities, Sage

Publications, Newberry Park, California, Figure 2.3, p. 58

117 , W., Immunization, p. 18

118 Dettman, G., and Kalokerinos, A., " Viral Vaccines, " ANJ article, p. 30

119 Belshe, R.B., Editor, Textbook of Human Virology, PSG Publishing Co.

Inc., Littleton, Massachusetts, USA

See also:

s, Sir , et at, Viruses of Vertebrates, Bailliere Tindall,

London, UK, Fourth Edition, (Figure 33.5 Sharing Distribution of Human

Monkeypox Cases, courtesy of I. Arita, Smallpox Eradication Unit), p. 944

120 Hawes, F., Canada's International Inununization Programme: 1986-1991,

full document

121 Chetelat, L.J., A Synthesis of Key Issues for Evaluation in Primary

Care, p. 142

122 Karzon, D.S., " Immunization on Public Trial, " The New England Journal

of Medicine, Vol. 297, No. 5, August 4, 1977, pp. 275 and 276

123 UNICEF Canada, Annual Report on the Northeast Thailand Integrated

Services Project for Children, Toronto, March 31, 1990, P. 5

124 Reported in the Toronto Star, December 10, 1989, P. B5

125 , G.S., The Hazards of Immunization, The University of London,

Athlone Press, London, UK, 1967, pp. 4-6 and 282-289 (Still in print)

126 Mendelsohn, R., " The Truth About Immunization, " p. 7

127 " Immununization Public Health Protector?, " p. 4

128 Neustaedter, R.,The Inununization Decision, pp. 72 and 73

129 " Links Between Contaminated Vaccines, Cancer and AIDS, " Townsend Letter

for Doctors, May, 1989, p. 254, (review of Snead, E. documentary video, " Is

it AIDS? Or Leukemia or Immunization Related Syndrome " )

130 Bloom B.R., " Vaccines for the Third World, " p. 15

131 Mendelsohn, R., " Immunization Controversies Continue, " The Peoples

Doctor--A Medical Newsletter for Consumers, Vol. 2, No. 10, ton

Illinois, USA

132 , W., Immunization, pp. 10 and 72

See also:

Cournoyer, C., What About Inmiunizations?, P. 3

133 Moskowitz, R., " Immunizations: The Other Side, " Mothering, Vol. 31,

Spring Edition, 1984

134 , W., Immunization, pp. 14 and 15

135 Fenical, G.M., " Neurological Complications of Immunization, " ls of

Neurology, No. 12, 1982, pp. 119- 128

See also:

White, F., " Measles Vaccine Associated Encephalitis in Canada, " Lancet, No.

2, 1983, pp. 683 and 684

Zilber, N., et al, " Measles Vaccination and Risk of Subacute Sclerosing

Panencephalitis (SSP), " Neurology, Vol. 33, 1983

St. Geme, J.W., et al, Exaggerated Natural Measles Following Attenuated

Virus Immunization, Pediatrics, Vol. 57, 1976, pp. 148-150

Neustaedter, R., The Immunization Decision, pp. 55-58

Mendelsohn, R., " The Medical Time Bomb of Immunization Against Disease, " p.

49

136 Cody, C.L., et al, " Nature and Rates of Adverse Reactions Associated

with DPT and DT Inununizations in Infants and Children, " Pediatrics, Vol.

68, pp. 650-660

See also:

Baraff, L.J., et al, " Possible Temporal Association Between

Diptheria-Tetanus-Toxoid-Pertussis Vaccination and Sudden Infant Death

Syndrome, " Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, No. 2, 1983, pp. 7-11

son, V., et at, " Relationship of Pertussis Immunization to the Onset

of Epilepsy, Febrile Convulsions and Central Nervous System Infections: A

Retrospective Epidemiologic Study, " Tokai Journal of Experimental Clinical

Medicine, Vol. 13, Supplement, pp. 137 ,142, 1988. ( " Records of 2,199

children with febrile seizures were reviewed and a significant association

between the first febrile seizures and the scheduled age of pertussis

immunization was noted, " such association was not significant with epilepsy

and CNS infections.)

Hutcheson, R., " Follow-up on DPT Vaccination and Sudden Infant

Deaths--Tennessee, " MMWR, March 30, 1979

Kalokerinos, K., and Dettman, G., " A Supportive Submission, " The Dangers of

Immunization, Biological Research Institute, Warburton, ,

Australia, 1979, p. 74

Coulter, H.L., and Fisher, B.L., DPT: A Shot in the Dark, Harcourt, Brace,

Jovanovich Publishers, San Diego, USA, 1985

, L., " DPT Vaccine Roulette, " 60 minute documentary produced for

WRC-TV, Washington, DC, April, 1982

Hyman, J., " Children at Risk: The DPT Dilemma, " The Democrat & Chronicle,

Rochester, N-Y, 1987

137 --Mendelsohn, R., " Immunization Update, " The People's Doctor--A medical

Newsletter for Consumers, Vol 10, No. 5, ton, Illinois, USA

138 Church, J.A., and s, W., " Recurrent Abscess Formation Following

DPT Inununizations: Association with Hypersensitivity to Tetanus Toxoid, "

Pediatrics, Vol. 75, 1985, pp. 899 and 900

See also:

Mendelsohn, R., " More Anti-Vaccine Arguments, " The Peoples Doctor--Medical

Newsletter for Consumers, Vol. 8, No. 12, ton, Illinois, USA

Neustaedter, R., The Immunization Decision, p. 33

139---Mendelsohn, R., " The Medical Time Bomb of Immununization Against

Disease, " p. 52

See also:

Neustaedter, R., The Immunization Decision, pp. 40 and 41

140 Sabath, L., et at, " Antigen Induced Transient Hypersusceptibility: A

Cause of Sporadic and Fulminant Infection in Normals, " Clinical Research,

Vol. 35, No. 617A, 1987. (This case controlled study found that childhood

purulent meningitis victims had a higher record of recent inununization,

than children of comparable age who were free from meningitis.)

141 Alderslade, R., et al, " The National Childhood Encephalopathy Study, "

in Whooping Cough, Reports from the Committee on Safety of Medicines and

the Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunization, Department of Health

and Social Security, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1981, pp. 79-154

142 , W., Immunization, p. 14

143 Cournoyer, C., What About Immunizations?, pp. 8 and 9

144 . W., Immununization, p. 13

145 Coulter, H., and Fisher, B., DPT: A Shot in the Dark, Avery Publishing

Group, Garden City Park, New York, 1991

See also:

Coulter, H.L., Vaccination, Social Violence, and Criminality--The Medical

Assault on the American Brain, Center for Empirical Medicine, Washington,

DC, USA, 1990

146 Dettrnan, G., " SIDS--Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, " Blackmores

Communicator--The Professional Services Newsbrief of Blackmore

Laboratories, Vol. 6, Sydney Australia and Auckland New Zealand, May, 1983

147 Torch, W., " Diptheria-Pertussis-Tetanus (DPT) Immunization: A Potential

Cause of the Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), " Neurology, No. 32, 1982,

p. A169

148 Mortimer, E., Jr., " Pertussis Immunization: Problems, Perspectives,

Prospects, " Hospital Practice, October, 1980, pp. 103-118

149 , D., and , D., " SIDS and Near-SIDS, " New England Journal

of Medicine, 306: (17), 1982, pp. 959-1028

150 Lederberg, J., Science, October 20, 1967, p. 313

151 Buttram, H., " Live Virus Vaccines and Genetic Mutation, " Health

Consciousness, April, 1990, pp. 44 and 45

152 , W., Immunization, p. 15

153 Markowitz, R., " The Case Against Immunizations, " Journal of the

American Institute of Homeopathy, Washington, DC, 1983, Institute reprint

154 , et al, " Multiple Sclerosis and Vaccinations, " British Medical

Journal, April 22, 1967, pp. 210-213

155 , W., Immunization, p. 15

156 Dettman, G., " Immunization, Ascorbate and Death, " Australian Nurses

Journal, December, 1977

157 Jahnke, U., et al, " Sequence Homology Between Certain Viral Proteins

and Proteins Related to Encephalomyelitis and Neuritis, " Science, Vol. 29,

July 19, 1985, pp. 282-284

158 Shaywitz, S., and Bennet, A., " Diagnosis and Management of Attention

Deficit Disorder: A Pediatric Perspective, " Pediatric Clinics of North

America, Vol. 31, No. 2, April, 1984, pp. 428-457

See also:

Shaywitz, S., and Bennet, A., American Psychiatric Association (Journal),

1987, pp. 44-47

Cowart, V., " Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Physicians Helping

Parents Pay More Heed, " Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol.

259, May 13, 1988, pp. 2647-2652

159 Buttram, H., " Live Virus Vaccines and Genetic Mutation, " p. 44

160 Coulter, H., Vaccination, Social Violence and Criminality, Washington,

DC, 1990, (entire work)

161 McGuire, R., " Brain Auto-Antibodies in 33% of Schizophrenics, " Medical

Tribune, July 14, 1988, p. 6

162 Morozov, P., editor, " Research on the Viral Hypothesis of Mental

Disorders, " in Advances in Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 12, published by

Karger, S., New York, 1983, pp. 52-75

See also:

Crow, T., " Is Schizophrenia an Infectious Disease?, " Lancet, 1:8317, 1972,

pp. 173-175

Halonen, P., et al, " Antibody Levels to HSV-1, Measles, and Rubella Virus

in Psychiatric Patients, " British Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 125, 1974,

pp. 461-465

163 Mendelsohn, R., " The Medical Time Bomb of Immunization Against

Disease, " pp. 47 and 48

164 " Immunization Public Health Protector?, " p. 8

165 Mendelsohn, R., " The Medical Time Bomb of Immunization Against

Disease, " p. 48

166 Storsaeter, J., et al, " Mortality and Morbidity from Invasive Bacterial

Infections During a Clinical Trial of Acellular Pertussis Vaccines in

Sweden, " Pediatrics Infectious Disease Journal, Vol. 78, 1988, pp. 637-645

167 Buttram, H.E., and Hoffman, J.C., " Bringing Vaccines Into Perspective, "

Mothering, Vol. 34, Winter Edition,1985, p. 42

168 Buttram, H.E., and Hoffman, J.C., Vaccinations and Immune Malfunction,

pp. 5-18, article in ref 167

See also:

" Vaccinations and lmmune Malfunction, " Mothering, Vol.28, Summer Edition,

1983, pp.31 and32

169- lbid (article ref.), p. 32

170 Craighead, J.E., " Report of a Workshop: Disease Accentuation After

Immununization with Inactivated Microbial Vaccines, " at the National

Institutes of Health, Bethesda land, in Journal of Infectious Diseases,

(University of Chicago), Vol. 131, No. 6, June, 1975, pp. 749-754

See also:

Nader, P., et al, " Severe Illness (Atypical Exanthem) Following Exposure to

Natural Measles: 11 Cases in Children Previously Inoculated with Killed

Vaccine. " American Pediatrics Society Abstracts, 1967, p. 13

Kim, H., et at, " Respiratory Syncytial Virus Disease in Infants Despite

Prior Administration of Antigenic Inactivated Vaccine, " Progress in Medical

Virology, Vol. 13, 1971, pp. 239-270

171 Zimmerman, B., and Stone, A., " Allergic Reactions Associated with Viral

Vaccines, " Progress in Medical Virology, Vol. 82, No. 5, October, 1987, pp.

225-232

172 Buttram, H.E., and Hofftnan, J.C., Vaccinations and Immune Malfunction,

p. 46

173 Coulter, H.L., and Fisher, B.L., DPT, p. 407

174 Buttram, H.E., and Hoffman, J.C., Vaccinations and Immune Malfunction,

p. 47

175 Epidemiological Data Presented in Canadian Parliamentary Debates,

Ottawa, Canada, June 14, 1978

176 Obomsawin, R., " Traditional Lifestyles and Freedom from the Dark Seas

of Disease, " Community Development Journal--An International Forum, Oxford

University Press, Vol. 18, No. 2, Oxford, England, April, 1983

177 Prior, I., " The Price of Civilization, " Nutrition Today, Vol. 6, No. 4,

July-August, 197 1, pp. 3 and 11

178 Illich, I., Limits to Medicine--Medical Nemesis? The Expropriation of

Health, Penguin Books, Middlesex, England, 1977

See also:

, R., Medicine Out of Control, (see ref 59 for complete information)

Mendelsohn, R.S., Confessions of a Medical Heretic, Warner Books--Warner

Communications Company, New York, NY, USA, 1979

Corea, G., The Hidden Malpractice--How American Medicine Mistreats Women,

Jove Publications, New York, NY, USA, 1978 Edition

Tushnet, L., The Medicine Men--The Myth of Ouality Medical Care In America

Today, Warner Books Inc., New York, NY, USA, 1969 Edition

Inglis, B., The Case for Unorthodox Medicine, G.P. Putnam's Sons and

Berkley Publishing Corp., New York, NY, USA, 1969 Edition

179 Illich, I., Tools for Conviviality, Fitzhenry and Whiteside Ltd.,

Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 1963, p. 7

180 Gandhi, Mahatma, The Health Guide, published by Shri Anand T.

Hingorani, Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, India, 1965, pp. 5- 1 0

181 Kahn, K.S., et al, " A Health Care Paradox, " World Health, Published by

the World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, May, 1989

182 Sharpston, M.J., " Health and the Human Environment, " in Health, Food

and Nutrition in Third World Development, Ghosh, PK. editor, prepared under

the auspices of the Center for International Development, University of

land, and the World Academy of Development and ation, Washington,

DC, International Development Resource Book No. 6, Greenword Press, a

division of Congressional Information Service Inc., Westport, Conn. USA,

1984, pp. 85 and 80

183 McKeown, T., " The Road to Health, " World Health Forum, Published by the

World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, Vol. 10, 1989, pp. 410 and 411

184 Helberg, H., " An Evolving Process, " World Health Forum, published by

the World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, January-February, 1988

185 Standard, K.L., " Infections and Malnutrition--Child Mortality, " in

Epdemiology and Community Health in Warm Climate Countries, Cruickshank,

R., et al, editors, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, UK, 1976, pp. 45-48

186 Etherington, A., Assessment of the CIDA Health Sector Integrated Paper,

p. 1

187 Chetelat, L.J., A Synthesis of Key Issues for Evaluation in Primary

Health Care, p. 2

189 Ibid, p. 3

189 Sharing Our Future--Canadian International Development Assistance,

Canadian International Development Agency, Hull, Canada, 1987, P. 37

190 " Proceedings of the Meeting on Selective Primary Health Care, " November

29-30, 1985. Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium, 1985

191 , S., Clean Culture--The New Soil Science, Health Research,

Mokelunme Hill, California, USA reprint of 1918 Edition, p. 6

192 Wrench, G.T., The Wheel of Health--The Sources of Long Life and Health

Among the Hunza, Shocken Books, New York, 1972 reprint of 1938 Edition, pp.

91 and 107

193 Shelton, H.M., " Basis of Resistance, " Hygienic Review, Vol. 37, No. 9,

San , Texas, USA, May, 1977, p. 194

194 , Sir A., " The Role of Insects and Fungi in Agriculture, " The

Empire Cotton Growing Review, Vol. XIII

195 Mueller, S., " A Horticulturist Speaks Out on Health, " Health Science,

April-May Issue, 1980, p. 28

196 Bernard, R.W., Super Foods From Super Soil, Health Research, Mokelunme

Hill, California, 1956, p. 13

197 Moodie, R.L., " Paleopathology: An Introduction to the Study of Ancient

Evidences of Disease, " and Moodie, " The Antiquity of Disease, " quoted by

Hubbard, R.A., in Historical Perspectives of Health, undated private

publication, Professional Health Media Services, Loma , California

198 Wrench, G.T., The Wheel of Health, pp. 117-118

199 Shelton, H.M., " Basis of Resistance, " p. 194

200 , Clean Culture, p. 21

201 lbid (whole text.)

202 , A., From Soil to Psyche, Woodbridge Press Publishing

Company, Santa Barbara, California, USA, 1977, pp. 193 and 194

203 Kjolhede, C., and Gadomski, A., " Ten Best Readings in . . . Vitamin A, "

Health Policy and Planning: 5 (1):, Oxford University Press, Oxford,

England, 1990, p. 88

204 Clausen, S., " The Pharmacology and Therapeutics of Vitamin A, " Journal

of the American Medical Association, Vol. 111, 1938, pp. 144-154

205 Sommer, A., et al, " Increased Mortality in Children with Mild Vitamin A

Deficiency, " Lancet, No. 2, 1983, pp. 585-588

206 Sonuner, A., et at, " Increased Risk of Respiratory Disease and

Diarrhoea in Children with Pre-Existing Mild Vitamin A Deficiency, "

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 40, 1984, pp. 1090-1095

207 Sommer, A., et al, " Impact of Vitamin A Supplementation on Childhood

Mortality: A Randomized Controlled Community Trial, " Lancet, Vol. I, 1986,

pp. 1169-1173

208 Kjolhede, C., and Gadomski, A., " Ten Best Readings in ... Vitamin A, "

p. 88

209 Mamdani, M., and Ross, D., " Vitamin A Supplementation and Child

Survival: Magic Bullet or False Hope?, " Health Policy and Planning: 4 (4),

Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, 1989, pp. 273 and 274

210 West, K., and Sommer, A., " Delivery of Oral Doses of Vitamin A to

prevent Vitamin A Deficiency and Nutritional Blindness: A State-of-the-Art

Review, " UN Administrative Committee on Coordination--Sub-Committee on

Nutrition State-of-the-Art series, Nutrition Policy Discussion Paper #2,

Food Policy and Nutrition Division, Food and Agriculture Organization,

Rome, Italy, 1987

211 Eastman, S., " Vitamin A Deficiency and Xerophthalmia: Recent Findings

and Programming Implications, " Assignment Children, UNICEF, NY, 1987

212 Mamdani, M., and Ross, D., " Vitamin A Supplementation and Child

Survival: Magic Bullet or False Hope?, " p. 287

213 lbid, pp. 274, 289 and 290

214 Dettman, G., and Kalokerinos, K., " The Spark of Life, " Health and

Healing: Journal of Alternative Medicine, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1981 (This article

was originally accepted by the Royal Australian College of Practicioners,

but not published because--according to a letter prepared by the Chairman

of its Editorial Advisory Panel-- " an article giving a contrary opinion . .

.. was not obtainable. " )

215 Stone, I., The Healing Factor--Vitamin C Against Disease, Grosser and

Dunlop Publishers, (produced in cooperation with Whitehall, Hadlyme and

, Inc.), New York, NY, USA, 1974 Edition, pp. 70-89 and 202-212

216 Jungeblut, C., " Inactivation of Poliomyelitis Virus In Vitro by

Crystalline Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid), " (Department of Bacteriology,

College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University), Journal of

Experimental Medicine, Vol. 62, 1935, pp. 517-521

217 Holden, M., and Molley, E., " Further Experiments on Inactivation of

Herpes Virus by Vitamin C (1 -ascorbic acid), " Journal of Immunology, Vol.

33, 1937, pp. 251-257

218 Langenbusch, W., and Enderling, A., " Einfluss der Vitaniine auf das

Virus der Maulund Klavenseuch, " Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Vol. 140,

1937, pp. 1 12-115

219 Amato, G., " Azione dell'acido ascorbico sul virus fisso della rabia e

sulta tossina tetanica, " Giomale di Bafteriologia, Virologia et

Immunologia, Vol. 19, 1937, pp. 843-849

220 Jungeblut, C., " Inactivation of Poliomyelitis Virus in Vitro by

Ascorbic Acid, " Experimental Medicine, Vol. 62, p. 203

221 Jungeblut, C., " Further Observations on Vitamin C Therapy in

Experimental Poliomyelitis, " (Department of Bacteriology, College of

Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University), Journal of Experimental

Medicine, Vol. 65, 1937, pp. 127-146

See also:

Ibid, Vol. 66, 1937, pp. 459-477

Ibid, Vol. 70, 1939, pp. 315-332

222 Klenner, F., " Observations On the Dose and Administration of Ascorbic

Acid When Employed Beyond the Range of A Vitamin In Human Pathology, " The

Journal of Applied Nutrition, (official publication of the International

College of the International College of Applied Nutrition), La Habra,

California, USA, Vol. 223, No. 3 and 4, Winter, 1971, pp. 60-89

See also:

References 221--223

223 lbid, pp. 64 and 65

224 Klenner, F., " The Treatment of Poliomyelitis and Other Virus Diseases

with Vitamin C, " Southern Medicine and Surgery, Vol. 111, 1949, pp. 209-214

225 lbid

226 Klenner, F., " The Use of Vitamin C as an Antibiotic, " Journal of

Applied Nutrition, Los Angeles, California, USA, Vol. 6, 1953, pp. 274-278

See also:

Klenner, F., " Massive Doses of Vitamin C and the Virus Diseases, " Southern

Medicine and Surgery, Vol. 113, 1951, pp. 101--107

227 Faulkner, J., and , F., Vitamin C and Infection, ls of

Internal Medicine, Vol. 10, 1937, pp. 1867-1873

See also:

Perla, D., and Marmorsten, " Role of Vitamin C in Resistance, " Archives of

Pathology, Vol. 23, pp. 543-575, and pp. 683-712

228 Gupta, G., and Guha, B., " The Effect of Vitamin C and Certain Other

Substances on the Growth of Microorganisms, ls of Biochemistry and

Experimental Medicine, Vol. 1, 1941, pp. 14-26

229 Sirsi, M., " Antimicrobial Action of Vitamin C on M. Tuberculosis and

Some Other Pathogenic Organisms, " Indian Journal of Medical Sciences, Vol.

6, Bombay, India, pp. 661 and 662

230 Jungeblut, C., and Zwemer, R., " Inactivation of Diphtheria Toxin in

Vivo and in Vitro by Crystalline Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid), Proceedings of

the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine, Vol. 32, 1935, pp. 1229-1234

231 Jungeblut, C., " Inactivation of Tetanus Toxin by Crystalline Vitamin C

(1-ascorbic acid), " (Department of Bacteriology, College of Physicians and

Surgeons, Columbia University), Journal of Immunology, Vol. 33, No. 3,

1937, pp. 203-214

232 Kodama, T., and Kojima, T., " Studies of the Staphylococcal Toxin,

Toxoid and Antitoxin, Effect of Ascorbic Acid on Staphylococal Lysins and

Organisms, " Kitasato Archives of Experimental Medicine, Vol. 16, 1939, pp.

36-55

233 Takahashi, Z., Nagoya, Journal of Medical Science, Vol. 12, 1938, p. 50

234 , P., et at, in Canadian Medical Association Journal, Vol. 54,

1946, p 233

235 Charpy, J., " Ascorbic Acid in Very Large Doses Alone or With Vitamin D2

in Tuberculosis, " Bulletin de I'Academie Nationale de Medecine, Vol. 132,

Paris, 1948, pp. 421-423

236 Hochwald, A., " Observations on the Effect of Ascorbic Acid on Croupous

Pneumonia, Wien Archiv fur Innere Medizin, Vol. 29,1936, pp. 353-374

237 Onnerod, M., and Unkauf, B., " Ascorbic Acid Treatment of Whooping

Cough, " Canadian Medical Association Journal, No. 37, 1937, p. 134

See also:

Onnerod, M., et al, " A Further Report on the Ascorbic Acid Treatment of

Whooping Cough, " Canadian Medical Association Journal, No. 37, 1937, p. 268

238 DeWit, J., " Treatment of Whooping Cough with Vitamin C, "

Kindergeneeskunde, Vol. 17, 1949, pp. 367-374

239 LEPROSY:

Gatti and Goana, " Ascorbic Acid in the Treatment of Leprosy, " Archiv

Schiffe-und Tropenhygiene, Vol. 43,1939, pp.32

Ferreira, D., " Vitamin C in Leprosy, " Publicacoes Medicas, Vol. 20, 1950,

pp. 25-28

TYPHOID FEVER:

Szirmai, F., " Value of Vitamin C in Treatment of Acute Infectious

Diseases, " Deutshes Archive fur KlinischeMedizin, Vol. 85,1940, pp. 434-443

Drummond, J., " Recent Advances in the Treatment of Enteric Fever, " Clinical

Proceedings, Vol. 2, South Aftica, 1943, pp. 65-93

DYSENTARY:

Veselovskaia, T., Effective of Vitamin C on the Clinical Course of

Dysentery, Voenno-Meditsinskii Zhumal, Vol. 3, Moscow, 1957, pp. 32-37

Sokolova, V., " Application of Vitamin C in Treatment of Dysentery, "

Terapevticheskii Arkhiv, Vol. 30, Moscow, 1958, pp. 59-64

Other readings on Vitamin C and bacterial infections:

Kuribayashi, K., et al, " Effect of Vitamin C on Bacterial Toxins, " Japanese

Journal of Bacteriology, Vol. 18,1963, pp. 136-142

Sweany, H., et al, " The Body Economy of Vitamin C in Health and Disease, "

Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 116, 1941, pp. 469-474

Dujardin, J., " Use of High Doses of Vitamin C in Infections, " Presse

Medical, Vol. 55, 1947, p. 72

240 Cottingham, E., and Mills, C., " Influence of Temperature and Vitamin

Deficiency Upon Phagocyfic Functions, " Journal of Immunology, Vol. 47,

1943, pp. 493-502

241 DeChatelet, L., et al, " Ascorbic Acid: Possible Role in Phagocytosis, "

paper presented at the 62nd Meeting of the American Society of Biological

Chemists, San Francisco, USA, June 18, 1971

242 Cathcart, R., " Clinical Trial of Vitamin C, " Medical Tribune, June 25,

1975

See also:

Cathcart, R., " Vitamin C, Titrating to Bowel Tolerance, Anascorbemia, and

Acute Induced Scurvy, " Medical Hypothesis, Vol. 7, 1981, pp. 1359-1376

243 ing, L., How to Live Longer and Feel Better, Avon Books of the

Hearst Corporation, New York, 1986, pp. 177 and 178

244 McCormick, W., " Vitamin C in the Prophylaxis and Therapy of Infectious

Diseases, " Archives of Pediatrics, Vol. 68, No. 1, January, 1951, pp. 3 and 7

245 Simon, H., " Exercise and Infection, " The Physician and Sports Medicine,

Vol. 15, 1987, pp. 135-141

246 White, K., " Interferon: The Promise . . . and Reality, " Medical

Tribune, Vol. 19, October 16, 1978, p. 31

247 Sauberlich, H., " Implications of Nutritional Status in Human

Biochemistry, Physiology and Health, " Clinical Biochemistry, Vol. 17,

April, 1984

See also:

Chandra, R., " Nutritional Regulation of Immunity and Infection, " Journal of

Ped., Gastroentorology. and Nutrition, Vol. 5, pp. 844-852

248 Barons, et al, " Dietary Fat and Natural Killer-Cell Activity, " American

Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 50, 1989, pp. 861-867

249 Coffnan, L., " Effects of Specific Nutrients on the Immune Response, "

Medicine and Clinicians--North American, Vol. 69, July, 1985, p. 5

250 Brown, R., et al, in Brain Behaviour and Immunity, Vol. 3,1989, pp.

320-330

251 Wiess, J., et al, " Behavioural and Neural Influences on Cellular Immune

Responses: Effects of Stress and Interleukin-1, " Journal of Clinical

Psychiatry, Vol. 50, Supplement 5, 1989, pp. 43-53

See also:

Girard, D., et al, " Psychosocial Events and Subsequent Illness--A Review, "

Western Journal of Medicine, Vol. 142, March, 1985, pp. 358-363

252 Belyayev, I., et al, " Combined use of Ultraviolet Radiation to Control

Acute Respiratory Disease, " Vestn Akad Med Nauk SSSR, Vol. 3, 1975, p. 37

See also:

Zabaluyeva, A., et at, " The Mechanism of Adaptogenic Effect of

Ultraviolet, " Vestn Akad Med Nauk SSSR, Vol. 3, 1975, p. 23

Frick, G., " Effect of UV on Blood Picture, " Folia Haemat, Vol. 101, 1974,

p. 871

Rylova, S., " Effect of Short Wave Ultraviolet Rays on the Phagocytic

Activity of Leucocytes in Patients Suffering from Rheumatoid

Polyarthritis, " Vop Kurort Fizioter, Vol. 32, 1967, p. 344

, J., and Sturm, E., " The Lymphocytes in Natural and Induced

Resistance to Transplanted Cancer, " Journal of Experimental Medicine, Vol.

29, 1919, pp. 25-35

253 Maughan, G., and Smiley, D., " The Effect of General Irradiation with

Ultraviolet Upon the Frequency of Colds, " Journal of Preventive Medicine,

Vol. 2, 1928, p. 69

254 Zabaluyeva, A., " General Inununological Reactivity of the Organism in

Prophylactic Ultraviolet Irradiation of Children in Northern Regions, "

Vestn Akad Med Nauk SSSR, Vol. 3, 1975, p. 23

255 Miley, G., " The Knott Technic of Ultraviolet Blood Irradiation in Acute

Pyogenic Infections, " New York Journal of Medicine, Vol. 42, 1942, p. 38

See also:

Hollaender, A., and Oliphant, J., " The Inactivating Effect of Monochromatic

Ultraviolet Radiation on Influenza Virus, " Journal of Bacteriology, Vol.

48, 1944, p. 447

Downes, A., and Blunt, T., " Researches on the Effect of Light Upon Bacteria

and Other Organisms, " Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, Vol.

26, 1877, p. 488

256 Kime, Z., Sunlight Could Save Your Life, World Health Publications,

Penryn, California, USA, 1980, p. 315

257 MacGregor, R., " Alcohol and Immune Defense, " Journal of the American

Medical Association, Vol. 256, No. 11, September 19, 1986

258 Aldo-Benson, M., et al, Abstract No. 7966, Federation of American

Sciences for Experimental Biology, May, 1988

259 Bagasra, O., Abstract No. 3111, Federation of American Sciences for

Experimental Biology, Reproduced from a May, 1988, presentation

260 Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 154, 1986

261 Kime, Z., Sunlight Could Save Your Life, Author's Preface

ANNEX l

PROBLEMS WITH DEVELOPING WORLD MEDICALIZATION

AND THE TRADITIONAL MEDICINE ALTERNATIVE

By: Obomsawin

The medicalization of large parts of the Third World . . . has occurred in

the context of the destruction of whole systems of traditional philosophies

in the name of science and health. Present patterns of dependence are a

product of this . . . evolution. The addictive nature of the new pill

culture may as one of its unwanted consequences have played a role in

creating and sustaining poverty in the Third World. The price of foreign

products is often out of proportion to the purchasing power of the poor,

who thus may squander a large part of their income in the pursuit of what

may be illusory hopes of benefit.. . . Pharmaceuticals are an inappropriate

solution to many major health problems and . . . their consumption often

does not meet the health needs of people.

Goran Sterky, Dag Hammarskjold Foundation, Uppsala, Sweden.

THE DISTURBING DILEMMA OF DEVELOPING WORLD MEDICALIZATION

Some leading international health officials, such as Bannerman of

the World Health Organization, have legitimately raised the concern that

" orthodox " and " conventional " health care services--as devised for and

administered to Developing World populations--remain culturally alienating

and " economically unobtainable. " He also maintains that, whether in the

Developed or Developing Worlds, the disparity between the actual benefits

and the high costs of Western medicine continues to be an issue of major

socioeconomic and political concern. As part of this picture, it is noted

that in the Developing World, roughly one third of all health care costs

are devoted to " the drug bill alone, " with relatively poor countries

importing such drugs against payments in scarce hard currency.1

Medawar, Director of a London-based research unit, Social Audit

Ltd., has conducted extensive international research on the issue of

medicalization practices in the Developing World. He has documented the

following disturbing conclusions in an article on the need for the

strengthening of international regulation in pharmaceutical practice:2

The major proportion of pharmaceuticals on the world market are

" unessential and/or undesirable products "

there are well documented cases of the ongoing marketing of pharmaceuticals

to the Developing World that are known to be inherently unsafe and dangerous

excessive prescribing constitutes a major cause of " adverse reactions, "

with " chronic and serious under-reporting " of adverse reactions being the

norm (Estimates of the extent of under-reporting of adverse reactions in

the United Kingdom, " which has one of the most sophisticated post-marketing

surveillance systems in the world' through the mechanism of the UK

Committee on Safety of Medicines, range from 90 to 99 percent.)

information from tests and trials on drugs typically ranges from inadequate

to appalling (in most clinical trials, the sample sizes are too small and

the length of treatment too short to substantiate the claims made on the

strength of them)

most prescribing information is partial, unreliable and incomplete, with

the benefits routinely " emphasized and over-emphasized, " while the

disadvantages and potential dangers are routinely played down or ignored

in most countries (especially in the Developing World), the right to

redress of damaged patients or clients is extremely limited, or does not

exist at all

as a rule, decisions about medicines are almost totally dominated by

professional and commercial interests, and are usually carried out in

secret, with public accountability for the medical system and its

practitioners severely restricted

Internationally, the pharmaceutical industry devotes about 1 percent of its

research and development expenditures on " poor world " diseases, despite the

fact that no " good drug treatments " exist for over half of the diseases

specific to the poor countries.

Medawar also provides evidence which suggests that the World Health

Organization's (WH0) intimate cooperation and " contractual relations with

many pharmaceutical companies, " inter alia, cripples its capacity to

effectively represent and support the most fundamental health needs of the

Developing World through developing a system of care in which the most

prevalent and serious health needs are met. Multisectoral measures which

are safe, effective, simple, and uncostly hold the answer to attaining

sustainable and long term health improvement. Indeed, without due

leadership in this direction he contends that " Health for All by the year

2000 must appear a sham. "

Even where the WHO has been able to advocate a more rational public sector

approach to medical practice in the Developing World, as in its 1981 Action

Program on Essential Drugs and Vaccines, the fact remains that in most

Developing World countries there is readily available in the private sector

from 10 to 20 times as many pharmaceutical products as the 250 which are

recommended in the Organization's Action Program.

According to Sterky " . . . in some Third World countries, up to 75 percent

of the drugs moving in the market may be outside the control of health

ministries. " This active trade in up to 4,000 drug products is largely

monopolized by powerful transnational corporations. In fact, it is

estimated that 90 percent of the world's production of commercially

marketed pharmaceuticals originates in the industrialized countries, with

this percentage growing.3

INDIA--AN ALARMING CASE IN POINT

Trisha Greenhalgh's seminal survey of 2,400 individual patients under

treatment in the public and private medical sectors of India is

illustrative of conditions which are becoming increasingly prevalent

throughout much of the Developing World.4 It will thus be reported on in

some detail.

Her research confirmed that drugs which have a high incidence of side

effects or a " significant risk of fatal idiosyncrasy " are being sold over

the counter and prescribed by doctors for trivial complaints.

Chloramphenicol, barbiturates, anabolic steroids and high dosage oestrogen

preparations " are used freely, often from bizarre indications and in

unsuitable dose regimens. "

She refers to one national study which estimates that India is experiencing

between five to ten thousand deaths annually, from chloramphenicol-induced

aplastic anaemia alone. High dose estrogen-progesterone (EP) although

containing warnings of teratogenicity (potential to cause birth defects)

remain the cheapest and most widely employed pregnancy test in the country.

Furthermore, medical drugs which have been banned in Western countries due

to their dangers are actively prescribed, dispensed and marketed. A few

cases include: phenylbutazone, which has been associated with more deaths

in Britain than any other drug; and clioquinol which is officially accepted

as a " safe drug, " in apparent ignorance of the major scandal in which

literally tens of thousands of people were left crippled from the drug,

with its manufacturer, Ciba Geigy conceding full blame.

Greenhalgh further reports that the pharmaceutical industry argues that

" these drugs have not been shown to be hazardous to the Asian population, "

and that it awaits the results of post-marketing surveillance before

withdrawing them. In her words " this is less a cry for objectivity, than a

justification for exploiting the sorry state of medical audit. " Indeed,

case records are rarely kept by doctors engaged in private practice, and

polypharmacy remains rife, so most adverse drug reactions remain inevitably

undetected. Even if they were detected, there exists no system for the

reporting of suspected reactions, and there is no official procedure or

mechanism for alerting doctors of suspected adverse reactions in new drugs.

This situation is further compounded by the fact that to all appearances

with the exception of teaching hospitals, postgraduate education in

clinical pharmacology remains the " unchallenged province of representatives

from the pharmaceutical industry. "

Simple solutions appear to be ignored. For example, 30 percent of all child

deaths in the nation are due to diarrhoea, yet in over 90 percent of such

cases oral rehydration is ignored by practicing medical doctors. In the

population, millions are known to have a Vitamin A deficiency, with as many

as 30 thousand children being blinded each year. This occurs despite the

fact that " a fresh mango provides many weeks supply of Vitamin A for a

child and costs much less than a bottle of vitamin syrup. "

To conclude this summary of Greenhalgh's findings, I would share her

following observation.

.. . . one cannot ignore the long term effects [and the ethical

implications] of encouraging a poorly educated population to develop blind

faith in the infallibility of modern medicine, and the magical properties

ofprescribed pills . . . . people who are too poor to buy rice are being

led to believe that they need a cough mixture for every cough, an

antibiotic for every sore throat, and a tranquiliser to solve the problems

of everyday life.

A COMPELLING VOICE OF PROTEST

Mira Shiva, Coordinator of the Voluntary Health Association of India,

drawing upon her practical experience as a medical doctor in her home

country, protests that low cost, self reliant, and indigenous " health care

alternatives " have been unduly marginalized with the rapid growth of the

medical-industrial complex. Indeed, while clinics and drug dispensing

units,, nursing homes, drug marketing outlets, and diagnostic labs have

literally mushroomed throughout the nation, at rapidly escalating costs,

there has been " no significant and substantial change in the health status

of the people. "

She further contends that:

Simple health care solutions, for example changes in diet, simple massages,

home remedies and herbal medicines, which are as relevant today as in the

past . . . have been gradually excluded from the health care scene, because

of an assumed superiority of modern drugs for all kinds of health problems.

This assumed " scientificity " has not been demonstrated by comparing the

existing and new pharmaceuticals with alternative therapies in terms of

efficacy, side effects, drug interaction, costs, acceptability, and

availability.

Shiva also puts forward the view that the worldwide indigenous traditions

encompassed a superior holistic concept of health and disease, in which the

use of medicines served to complement and not displace more fundamental and

broadly based nutritional and environmental provisions. She concludes by

stating that:

.. . . the concept of the universalization of the pharmaceutical medical

solution . . . irrespective of the nutritional and health status of

patients [and or recipients] in deprived areas, is irrational. . . . It

also indicates an unhealthy First World bias on the part of drug exporters,

transferors of technology and propounders of myths.5

THE TRADITIONAL MEDICINE ALTERNATIVE

The human experimentation with and exploration of plant medicines has

evolved over the millennia to what is a current usage of some 20,000 plant

species, which remarkably--according to scientists on and ,

of the School of Pharmacy on London-- " form the major sources of medicine

for the population of the majority of the World.6

Nonetheless--as the preceding sections portray--initially in the First

World and now universally, there has been an aggressively pursued and

increasingly actualized goal to displace this traditional knowledge and

practice system, with commercially marketed Western pharmaceuticals.

Commercially subsidized and influenced university-based medical curricula

have fimctioned to shift the focus and faith of medical practitioners--and

in turn those they practice upon--from plant medicines, towards what is

considered a modernized pharmacopoeia. This public faith receives continual

reinforcement through the medium of public media advertising. (It should be

noted that approximately 75% of modem commercial pharmaceuticals are

strictly synthetic chemical substances,7 that without exception, bear toxic

and thus harmful side effects.)

It is widely acknowledged that synthetic agents can be far more easily

patented and thus profited from. This, inter alia, has led Pharmacological

researchers such as de Smet (Royal Dutch Association for the Advancement of

Pharmacy, the Hague, Netherlands) and Rivier, (Institute of Legal

Medicine--The University of Lausanne, Switzerland) to suggest that the

predominant view that traditional plant medicines are of marginal value

" could well be an economic verdict, rather than a well balanced scientific

judgment. " They go on to " deplore the commonly held belief that the study

of traditional agents is nothing but an evaluation of outdated exotic,

which cannot be relevant for Western Medicine.8 Their view is backed by

Labadie, who has conducted extensive research on traditional plant medicine

at the State University of Utrecht in the Netherlands. He confirms that

although it " in general represents a still poorly explored field of

research, " there is nonetheless a compelling basis for recognizing " the

international relevancy of research and development in the field of

traditional drugs. . . .9

This relevancy that Labadie speaks of, has in part arisen from the growing

recognition of the practical limitations, high costs, and iatrogenic

features incidental to allopathic (conventional) medicine, with such

awareness being the most prevalent in the First World, where it has been

the most widely practiced. Consequently, there has arisen in very recent

decades--from the lay to professional levels--a significant

counter-movement towards according " natural, " (variously termed e.g.,

nature based, lifestyle, and holistic) approaches to health care more

prominent recognition and employment.

An important part of this increasingly worldwide trend has been the

prominent re-emergence of an integrated science termed ethno-pharrnacology.

Although it central focus is on traditional pharmacognosy (medicines

derived from natural sources), it is necessarily interdisciplinary in scope

encompassing the functional co-relationship and integration of scientific

data in the areas of cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics,

history, botany, toxicology, botany, chemical physics, and biochemistry.

Furthermore, it entails both the preventive and therapeutic dimensions of

medicine.10

University of Messina pharmaco-biologist de Pasquale in conducting a

detailed historical review of plant derived medicine, which she has coined

" The Oldest Modern Science, " came to the conclusion that

The re-examination of nature in the search for new therapeutic means has

obtained remarkable results. The study of ancient official drugs, which had

fallen into disuse . . . has brought about a re-discovery of therapeutic

means used for millennia . . . . [ethnopharmacology], this millenarian

precursor of medical sciences, is still alive and vital and it has its own

place in the future of man. It possesses all the premises to enable it to

give a substantial contribution to a more efficacious and rational research

of medicaments. . . .11 (Eugene Linden's September 23, 1991 article in Time

" Lost Tribes Lost Knowledge, " cites M. Balick's (Director of the New York

Institute of Economic Botany) observation that only 1,100 of the earth's

265,000 species of plants have been thoroughly studied by Western

scientists, but as many as 40,000 may have medicinal or undiscovered

nutritional value for humans. He concludes with the recommendation that

traditional " healers . . . can help scientists greatly focus their search

for plants with useful properties. " )

Anne Mcllory's article " Medical secrets of the forest " in the February 18,

1991 issue of The Toronto Star speaks of the renewed interest of a limited

number of Western scientists in the " enormous " potential of traditional

plant medicines. Such interest has of course taken on much greater urgency

as the forests, and the elders who've retained this knowledge appear to

face impending extinction. One noteworthy example where this renewed

interest has richly paid off is found in the rosy periwinkle, which now

ftimishes an extract providing Western medicine with an 80 percent recovery

level for the once fatal condition of childhood leukaemia.

In going back to the 1978 Alma Ata Conference on Primary Health Care, we

find pragmatic approval given--at a political level--to the recommendation

that essential drugs and biologicals be locally produced and distributed

" at the lowest feasible cost. " In concert with this recommendation, the

Conference recognized the need to curb the growing over-dependency on

medical drugs. It was further affirmed that " proved traditional remedies be

incorporated in primary health care, including the establishment of

effective " supply systems. " 12 In the Words of Medawar, " The importance of

local medical need is recognized in the AlmaAta recommendation on drugs,

partly in the provisions on local manufacture and use of indigenous

remedies. " 13

From within the WHO, Bannerman has since gone on to play a vital role in

encouraging a renewed reliance upon " well known and tested herbal medicines

in primary health care. " He refers to a growing interest on the part of

Developing World governmental and research institutions in Africa, Asia,

and Latin America with respect to the possibilities of further developing

and re-utilizing their own medicinal plant resources. He forcibly argues

that:

.. . . medicinal plants are generally locally available and relatively

cheap, and there is every virtue in exploiting such local and traditional

remedies when they have been tested and proven to be non-toxic, safe,

inexpensive and culturally acceptable to the community. . . . There are

many records of traditional therapies employing herbal medicines that are

said to be effective against common ailments and usually without any

side-effects. . . The cultivation of medicinal plants and herbs can also be

linked with the production of vegetables and fruit with high nutritive

value that should be of particular benefit to mothers and children.

(While conducting an evaluation mission in Northeast Thailand, the writer,

in the company of UNICEF Officer Dr. Supote Prasertsri, visited the

Reanunakorn District Health Centre to examine its experimental traditional

plant medicine program. Program Director Pradit Tongyus--who also directs

the Centre's health, mental health, nutrition and sanitation

services--explained why he was inspired to establish the program. His own

son developed a serious urinary infection which failed to respond to

regular antibiotic treatments throughout 10 days of hospitalization. Upon

turning to a known local plant medicine, virtually all symptoms of

infection subsided within a 10 hour period. He went on to describe various

local plant medicines which had proven to be non-toxic and highly

efficacious in the remediation of a wide range of conditions such as:

burns; herpes simplex; snake and scorpion bites, kidney stones, ulcers, and

high blood pressure. Indeed, such reputable attestations exist worldwide,

and only await honest inquiry and further clinical testing.)

As well, Bannerman recommends that community health workers be afforded

with a working knowledge of the therapeutic value of local medicinal

plants, including their identification, cultivation, collection,

preparation, and therapeutic application. He maintains that provisions for

such training and practice represent a fundamental strategy to the

strengthening local and community self-reliance in health care.14

One of the key arguments of those who would oppose this is view, is that

before such medicines can be employed there must be extensive and detailed

testing of each specific plant medicine, extraction and refinement of the

active ingredients, followed by official recognition and approval. However,

there are some basic reasons why this conventional drug development

methodology is not only impracticable, but as well unnecessary.

A significant number of plant medicines have been used successfully for

centuries, and in some cases millennia. Where there has been a long and

established history of efficacy, no apparent adverse side effects, and

social acceptance, the only common sense response is to fully permit and

encourage continued usage. Researchers such as de Smet and Rivier

forcefully maintain that the endorsement of and reliance upon traditional

plant medicines in the Developing World, cannot and should not be made

conditional upon the full assemblage and weighing of " chemical,

pharmacological, clinical and toxicological evidence, " as such requirements

" would be untenable in the developing countries . . . where Western

alternatives for traditional therapies may be unavailable, unpayable or

socially unacceptable. "

Consequently, the most practical course recommended--as a means of

attaining more " immediate health care improvement " --is to conduct simple

assays on a series of traditional plant medicines, rather than undertake

costly and detailed chemical, clinical and toxicological studies of each

and every particular medicine.15 As an added and important point,

internationally such " simple assays " --as well as some very sophisticated

pharmacological and clinical studies--already exist on a number of

traditional plant medicines, with the former primarily found in the

bio-etbnographic, and the latter in the bio-science literature.

CRITICAL CONCLUSIONS AND DIRECTIONS

As a fitting synthesis of the issues and concerns as raised in this paper,

we can turn to the outstanding work of the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation in

Uppsala, Sweden. The Foundation convened a landmark international seminar

in 1985 on the issue of attaining Another Development in Pharmaceuticals.

The following salient observations are derived from the " Summary

Conclusions " of the Foundation's report on the seminar, which had both

public and private sector representation from Europe, Africa, Asia, and

Australia.

The pharmaceutical industry has evolved and been sustained, in part, by

encouraging the vision of human health problems as being solvable only by

technological means. A contrived international " pill-popping culture " may

be in the short-term economic interests of the industry, however it

effectually undermines the vital long term interest of attaining

" indigenous, " and " self-reliant " health development.

There has been too great a tendency to dismiss traditional medicine as

unscientific and superstitious, while accepting unquestioningly all that is

new. This is true despite the fact that traditional forms of medicine at

times " yield better results " than those which can be obtained by the use of

" modem pharmaceuticals. "

Perhaps more important than the actual nature of traditional remedies, was

the holistic perception of the nature of illness and the healing process.

This view often led to the use of therapies which enhanced the healing

process through treating the whole being, rather than the specialized

" targeting " of specific symptoms.

Medical policies and practices must be " ecologically sound, " viz. avoiding

the " unnecessary pollution of patients bodies with toxic chemicals. " The

pharmaceuticals market should be replaced by programs and therapies for

better health. The crisis will be solved only by a fundamental change both

in the training of health workers, and in the thinking of a community which

has " been seduced into believing that every ill can be solved by a little

pill. "

Both the mystique of professional monopolies of expertise and transnational

corporation monopolies of technology, which in concert deny development to

the South, " must be shattered. " Medicine should be " endogenous, " that is

primarily derived from the cultural, human and material resources available

to each society.16

It is the view of the writer, that to ignore these conclusions and oppose

these recommendations will be but to help insure the continuation of

oppression, poverty, and disease throughout the Developing World.

Furthermore, it will serve to deny both the developed and developing

nations with the enormous opportunity of properly assessing and accessing a

vastly untapped reservoir of vital experiential knowledge, insights, and

plant medicines which may tragically perish with the older generation of

increasingly marginalized and threatened indigenous " nature based " societies.

REFERENCES

1 Bannerman, R., " The Role of Traditional Medicine in Primary Health Care, "

in Traditional Medicine and Health Care Coverage--A reader for health

administrators and practitioners, 1983, edited by Bannerman, R., Burton,

J., and Wen-Chieh C., The World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland,

p. 319

2 Medawar, C., " International Regulation of the Supply and Use ofP

harmaceuticals, " in Development Dialogue, Vol. 25, 1985, The Dag

Hammarskjold Foundation, Uppsala, Sweden, p. 16-34

3 Sterky, Goran, " Another Development in Pharmaceuticals: An Introduction, "

in Development Dialogue, Vol. 2, 1985, The Dag Hanunarskjold Foundation,

Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 5 and 6

4 Greenhalgh, T., " Drug Prescription and Self-Medication In India: An

Exploratory Survey, " in Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 25, No. 3, 1987,

Pergamon Journals Ltd., Great Britain, pp. 307-316

5 Shiva, M., " Towards a Healthy Use of Pharmaceuticals--An Indian

Perspective, " in Development Dialogue, Vol. 25, 1985, The Dag Hammarskjold

Foundation, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 69-72

6 on, J. , and , L., " Etlmopharinocology and Western

Medicine, " in Journal of harmocolo Vol. 25, 1989, Elsevier Scientific

Publishers Ireland Ltd., pp. 61 and 65

7 lbid, p. 71

8 de Smet, P., and Rivier, L., " A General Outlook on Ethnopharmocology, " in

Journal of Ethnopharmocology, Vol. 25, 1989, Elsevier Scientific Publishers

Ireland Ltd., pp. 130 and 131

9 Labadic, R., " Problems and Possibilities in the Use of Traditional

Drugs, " plenary lecture presented at the Second International Congress on

Traditional Asian Medicine, September, 1984, Surabay, Indonesia

10 de Smet, P., and Rivier, L., " A General Outlook on Ethnopharacology, " p.

127, and see, de Pasquale, A. " Pharmacognosy: The Oldest Modern Science, "

in Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Vol. 11, 1984, Elsevier Scientific

Publishers Ireland Ltd., p. 13

11 de Pasquale, " Pharmacognosy, " pp. 13 and 16

12 Primary Health Care, Report of the International Conference on Primary

Health Care Jointly Organized by the WHO and UNICEF, at Alma-Ata, USSR,

September 6-12, 1978, published by the WHO, Geneva, Switzerland, 1978

13 Medawar, " International Regulation of Pharmaceuticals, " p. 19

14 Bannerman, " The Role of Traditional Medicine, " p. 326

15 de Smet, P., and Rivier, L., " A General Outlook on Ethnopharmacology. "

pp. 135 and 136

16 Dag Hanimarskkiold Seminar on Another Development in Pharmaceuticals,

June 3-6, 1985, " Summary Conclusions, " in Develoment Dialogue, Vol. 2,

1985, The Dage Hanunarskjold Foundation, Uppsala, Sweden, pp. 130-143

See also:

Akerele, O., (The World Health Organization), " The Best of Both Worlds:

Bringing Traditional Medicine Up-To-Date, " Social Science and Medicine,

Vol. 24, No. 2, 1987, pp. 177-181

van der Geest, S., (University of Amsterdam), " Pharmaceuticals in the Third

World: The Local Perspective, " in Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 25, No.

3, 1987, pp. 373-376

" Kyerematen, G., and Ogunlana, E., (University of Uppsala Biomedical

Centre), " An Integrated Approach to the Pharmacological Evaluation of

Traditional Materia Medica, " Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Vol. 20, 1987,

pp. 191-207

Huizer, G., " Indigenous Healers and Western Dominance: Challenge for Social

Scientists?, " Social Compass, XXXIV/4, 1987, pp. 415-436

Quah, S., Editor, The Triumph of Practicality--Tradition and Modernity in

Health Care Utilization in Selected Asian Countries, Social Issues in

Southeast Asia Programme, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore,

1989

, C., Editor, Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study, University

of California Press, Berkely, California, USA, 1977

Ademuwagun, Z., et at, Editors, (representing the universities of Ibadan,

Tennessee, and Iowa State), African Therapeutic Systems, (African Studies

Association, Brandeis University, Waltham, Mass., USA, Crossroads Press, 1979

ANNEX II:

AGROCHEMICAL AGRICULTURE THE NEED FOR A SANER ALTERNATIVE

By: Obomsawin

THE DILEMMA OF CHEMICAL FERTILIZATION

The worldwide use of commercial chemical fertilizers and pesticides has

increased by factors of 9 and 32 respectively, during the recent 35 year

period.1 For an appreciation of the impact of this on soil and plant

nutrition we should consider the observation of Chesworth:

Geochemically, farming is a kind of rape, with annual harvests removing

plant nutrients one or two orders of magnitude faster than . . . (natural

processes) can replace them. . . . The inherent fertility of soil, a

renewable resource, is largely ignored in modern mechanized agriculture in

favour of chemical fertilizers largely mined from non-renewable deposits. A

saner attitude once should be re examined as a possible basis for future

strategies.2

A highly significant practical concern is the increasingly high costs

associated with agrochemical fertilizers, coupled to their incapacity to

provide a range of essential micro nutrients to the soil.

Since the energy crises of the seventies, the cost of artificial fertilizer

has increased at least three fold, and most tropical countries are faced by

severe restrictions in foreign currency. The second drawback is that

commercial fertilizers are invariably incomplete. They look after N, P and

K, but most of the minor nutrients are left out . . . With this form of

agriculture becoming increasingly beyond the means of the Developing World,

alternatives are needed. 3

A further critical question that is rarely given due consideration is the

popularly promulgated belief that synthetically developed chemicals bear no

difference from those which naturally occur in the biosphere. In response

to this view, eminently successful horticulturist D. contends that

such a view overlooks the highly vital " life force " factor. In his words " A

synthetic chemical can appear to represent a natural one only to the extent

that a waxen image is a dummy of its living model. " 4

PESTICIDE POISONS

Throughout the Developing World, it is estimated that close to a million

people are annually poisoned by pesticides, of which 40,000 die. It is also

well worth noting in comparison with the Developed World, " the incidence of

pesticide poisoning is 13 times higher in the Third World. " To give but one

example, in Sri Lanka where there was not a single death from malaria in

1978, in that same year it is estimated that there were 1,000 deaths from

pesticide poisoning.5

Not only is there an accelerated use of pesticides as pests adapt to and

resist these poisons, but the pesticide manufacturers make them ever more

deadly. This all seems very strange, when we consider that extensive

research conducted by Cornell University Entomologist, Pimentel

(editor of the Handbook of Pest Management in Agriculture, CRC Press, 1981)

and others, confirms that data covering the last four decades indicate a

direct cause and effect relationship between pesticide dependency--along

with other large scale agribusiness techniques and highly significant

increases in crop losses due to pest damage.

" The share of crop yields lost to insects has nearly doubled (7% to 13%)

during the last 40 years, despite a more than 10-fold increase in the

amount and toxicity of synthetic insecticide used. " As if this wasn't

damning enough, it has also been found that " often less than 0. 1 % " of

pesticide applications actually reach the targeted pest(s).6

BIOLOGICALLY SOUND ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES

To give only one example in the developing world of the potential for local

alternatives to toxic pesticides, while visiting Thailand's Reanunakom

District Health Centre's Traditional Herbal Medicine Program (Nakhon Phanom

Province), I found that there has been successful development of and early

field trials for non-toxic plant source alternatives to chemical

pesticides. The biological product shown, had as its base a locally

growable variety of lemon grass.

In my discussion with the Program Coordinator P. Tongyus, it became evident

that there remains a considerable potential for villages to raise the basic

ingredients as a means of replacing their present dependence on commercial

chemical pest control products. Furthermore, there remains potential for

large scale industrial production of such non-toxic herbal pest control

products, if interest could be further generated, investments made, and

appropriate marketing channels established.

THE PROMISE OF CLEAN ORGANICULTURE METHODS

It is also of compelling interest that little acknowledged, albeit superior

agricultural methods such as the " clean culture " system (see pp. ??? in

main text) developed by Sampson bear great promise not merely for

preventing disease and human degeneration, but for alleviating the

crippling effects of starvation in the underdeveloped regions of earth.

At the time of 's experiments the average potato yield for the world,

stood at about 6 tons per acre, that of wheat 15 bushels. In the words of

, I broke all records for potatoes . . . digging fine samples at the

rate of 65 tons an acre, a success never achieved by any other

experimenter. " As for wheat, he was able to produce up to 100 bushels per

acre. He correctly perceived that the bankruptcy of the soil means the

impoverishment of the people; both in quality and quantity of food

provided. In his words " 'ne colossal loss of foodstuffs through the present

system is criminal. " His products included the largest apple that had ever

been recorded at 34-1/2 oz and nearly I-1/2 ft in circumference.

Additionally " clean culture " methods produced plants far more impervious to

adverse weather conditions, including frost. The shelf life of produce was

also greatly extended.7

A further major benefit of clean culture--of great significance to more and

regions--is the fact that porous rock based " mulches " are generally highly

potent in reducing evaporation of water from the soil. In fact, evidence

suggests that such mulches actually serve to extract " moisture from humid

atmospheres. " 8

A RECENT INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVE IN CLEAN ORGANICULTURE

With support from Canada's International Development Research Centre, the

University of Guelph (Ontario) Department of Land Resources Science--in

cooperation with various Tanzanian universities in the late 80's undertook

an historic applied research initiative on the potential of locally

accessible rock dust (what the University has coined as agro-geology)

applications to restore what has become largely infertile and acid soils in

the Mbeya, Morogoro and Mbozi regions of Tanzania.

At its outset, Somoka of Sokoine University of Agriculture in

Tanzania realistically projected that through rock dust fertilization:

vital micronutrients will be replaced

reductions in dependency on commercial chemical fertilizers will be achieved

farmers can anticipate -potential increases of 50% to 70% in crop yields.

(This particular project's level of success, and potential for replication

was assessed upon its completion in 1991.)9

REFERENCES

1 MacNeill, et al, CIDA and Sustainable Development, The Institute for

Research on Public Policy, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1989

2 Chesworth, W., " Late Cenozoic Geology and the Second Oldest Profession, "

Department of Land Resource Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada,

published in Geoscience Canada, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1981, pp. 54-56

3 Chesworth, W., et al, " Agricultural Alchemy: Stones Into Bread, "

Episodes, Vol. 1983, No. 1, p. 3

4 , A., From Soil to Psyche, Woodbridge Press Publishing

Company, Santa Barbara, California, USA, 1977, p. 195

·5 Chetelat, L.J., A Synthesis of Key Issues for Evaluation in Eaanded

Programs of Immunization, prepared for CIDA Policy Branch, Evaluation

Division, Hull, Canada, January, 1990, p. 36

6 Pimental, D., personal communication, May 8, 1990; Pimental, D., et at,

Environmental and Economic Impacts of Reduciniz US Agricultural Pesticide

Use, draft text, Cornell University Department of Entomology, October,

1989, p. 4; and Pimental, D., and Levitan, L., Pesticides: " Amounts Applied

and Amounts Reaching Pests, " Bioscience, American Institute of Biological

Science, Washington, DC, Vol. 36, No. 2, February, 1986, p. 86

7 , S., Clean Culture--The New Soil Science, Health Research,

Mokelumne Hill, California, reprint of 1918 Edition, whole text

8 Chesworth, Agricultural Alchemy, p. 5

9 Toomy, G., " Agrogeology--Rocks in the Service of Soil " --The IDRC Reports,

Ottawa, Canada, July, 1986, pp. 12-13

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