why and how glyconutrients work

[Guest guest]

This article is very very long. If you want to know what is available if

you supplement with a patented blend of 8 essential sugars called

" Ambrotose " then read on. These sugars help with everything from helping

you to stop smoking to inhibiting cancer tumor growth. If not

interested, delete now.

GLYCONUTRITIONALS: CONSOLIDATED REVIEW OF POTENTIAL BENEFITS FROM THE

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

By Tom Gardiner, PhD, Eileen Vennum, RAC, and Bill McAnalley, PhD.

View a PDF version of this document. PDF of this article

Author biographies Author biographies

" All diseases are manifestations of abnormalities of molecules,

chemical reactions, or processes. " (Murray RK, Harper's Biochemistry,

2000. p. 3)1

INTRODUCTION

Eminent scientists in the field of glycobiology have proposed that

specific dietary sugars (glyconutrients) could represent a new class of

nutrients with interesting benefits to health.2 Glyco means " sweet " and

refers to monosaccharides, or sugars. The role of carbohydrates (sugars)

in energy production has been long understood. However, their

additional, crucial role in orchestrating the healthy structure and

function of the body is a relatively new discovery that is not yet fully

appreciated.

Of the 200 monosaccharides that occur naturally in plants, fewer than

ten are predominantly used by the body for healthy function. Glucose,

found in table sugar, is only one of them. Others identified to date

are: mannose, galactose, xylose, fucose, N-acetylglucosamine,

N-acetylgalactosamine, and sialic acid (N-acetylneuraminic acid or

NANA).3 These sugar molecules constitute an " alphabet " of " letters " that

can be combined in uncountable ways to form " words " the body uses to

communicate information required for healthy function. Glycoproteins are

molecules that are combinations of sugar and protein; glycolipids are

combinations of sugar and fat (lipid). The general term for these

combination biomolecules is " glycoconjugates " .

Glycoconjugates on cell surfaces and in the blood are responsible for

cellular recognition processes that enable the body to perform the many

complicated functions required for health. Glycoconjugates on the

surface of one cell bind to receptors on another cell, which allows the

cells to communicate with one another. This is called cell-to-cell

communication. Glyconutrients also constitute important parts of

glycoprotein molecules in the blood (rather than attached to cells).

Historically, scientists theorized that all glycoprotein sugars were

constructed from dietary glucose. This theory stood for many years

without testing. Recently, however, new technology has enabled testing

of the glucose-only theory. It proved false. We now know that the body

not only absorbs these various sugars intact from the gastrointestinal

tract but, in many cases, actually prefers to obtain them from diet.

Obtaining these sugars from dietary sources is more efficient than

obtaining them through multi-step enzymatic conversions from glucose

because less energy and less time are required.

Below is a list of health-related benefits that have been associated

with single sugars, combinations of sugars, or sugar-containing

glycoconjugates. This list includes information obtained from in vitro

(test tube) studies, animal studies, single human case reports and large

human clinical trials. In the human studies, various routes of

administration and various dosage amounts were used. None of these

studies reach the standard of proof required for drugs. On the other

hand, nutritional supplement products are highly safe compared to drugs.

This is because they support normal, healthy structure and function and

are not intended to alter or override normal physiology.

Following the list of " Consolidated Benefits " is a list of " Expanded

Benefits and Mechanisms of Action " that includes more detailed

information about how the sugars work in the body. Please refer to

specific footnoted references for clarification and perspective.

Nutritional supplements support normal, healthy structure and function

of the body. Individuals who are sick and who wish to use nutritional

supplements to complement standard, proven therapy should discuss this

with their health care professional. The majority of the results

reported below were not obtained with the use of any particular marketed

glyconutrient product. This list from the scientific literature of

potential benefits from use of glyconutrients is intended to point

medical researchers toward areas that glyconutrients have shown promise

for improved health. This information is also provided to educate

consumers who may wish to investigate the use of glyconutrients as a

safe nutritional complement to traditional therapy.

CONSOLIDATED BENEFITS Immune System Modulation

Glyconutrients (or their metabolic products) are necessary for healthy

immune cells and immune system function.4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,10 They have

been shown to:

* Play key roles in many aspects of tissue healing and repair, as

well as cell survival.11 ,12 ,13 ,14 ,15 ,16 ,17 ,18 ,19 ,20 ,21 ,22 ,23

,24 ,25 ,26 ,27 ,28 ,29

* Enhance immune system function.30

* Have positive effects on asthma.31 32 ,33

* Have positive effects on rheumatoid arthritis.34

* Have positive effects on lupus erythematosis.35

* Improve the symptoms of periodontal disease, canker sores, and

fever blisters.36 ,37 ,38 ,39

* Suppress the skin reaction of allergic contact dermatitis.40

* Inhibit bronchial allergic reaction.41

* Prevent arthritis.42 ,43

* Substantially reduce pain and increase joint mobility in

osteoarthritis patients.44 ,45 ,46 ,47 ,48

Cancer

Glyconutrients help to inhibit growth and/or tumor cell metastasis in

certain types of cancer.12 ,49 ,50 ,51 ,52 ,53 ,54 ,55 ,56 ,57 ,58 ,59

,60 ,61 ,62 ,63

Microbial Infections

Glyconutrients help kill bacteria, viruses and fungi and thereby defend

against infections. 62 ,64 ,65 ,66 ,67 ,68 ,69 ,70 ,71

* They were shown to inhibit eye infection.72

* They help protect against lung infections and injury by

inactivating inhaled bacteria and viruses trapped in airway mucus.73 ,74

Diabetes and Metabolic Disorders

Glyconutrients:

* Are an effective treatment for certain diseases caused by inborn

errors of metabolism.75

* Are an effective treatment for Carbohydrate-Deficient

Glycoprotein Syndrome (CDGS).76 ,77 ,78

* Are important in regulating blood glucose levels and insulin

release.79 ,80 ,81 ,82 ,83

* Help protect animals with diabetes and renal failure from

cataract formation in the eye.84 ,85 ,86

* May help in treating diabetes.87 ,88

Hormonal Function

Glyconutrients (or their metabolic products) play a key role in the

healthy function of hormones and:89 ,90 ,91 ,92 ,93 ,94 ,95 ,96 ,97 ,98 ,99

* Are important for the release and proper transport of hormones

throughout the body.100 ,101 ,102 ,103 ,104 ,105

* Are required for normal function, binding and processing of

growth hormone.106 ,107

Stress

Glyconutrients (or their metabolic products) are important during

periods of body stress21 ,22 ,23 ,24 ,25 ,26 ,27 ,28 ,29 because they can:

* Remove environmental chemicals from cells before they have a

chance to exert toxic effects.108 ,109 ,110 ,111 ,112 ,113 ,114 ,115

* Help protect against lung infections and injury following stress

by inactivating inhaled bacteria and viruses trapped in airway mucus.73 ,74

* Assist the body in developing tolerance to heat by contributing

to the protection and damage repair of cells during heat stress.29 ,116

,117 ,118 ,119 ,120 ,121 ,122 ,123

* Help protect against opportunistic infections, stomach ulcers and

altered behavior caused by psychological stress.124 ,125 ,126 ,127 ,128

,129 ,130 ,131 ,132 ,133 ,134 ,135 ,136 ,137

* Help protect and repair stressed cells during intense

exercise.138 ,139

* Help mediate tissue injury repair following physical stress

conditions, such as tissue abrasion and burns.140 ,141 ,142 ,143 ,144

,145 ,146

* Help protect against oxidative stress.147 ,148 ,149

Other Biological Effects

* Stimulate calcium absorption, which could be beneficial in

preventing calcium deficiency diseases, such as osteoporosis.150

* Aid in protection and normal function of the gastrointestinal

tract.151 ,152

* Help maintain normal colonic bacteria, which is necessary for

healthy digestion.153

* May increase memory in Alzheimer's patients.154

* May reduce craving in smokers155 and alcoholics.156

* Aid in healthy processing of cholesterol.157 ,158 ,159

* Help regulate proper nerve function.160 ,161 ,162

* May help relieve symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome and

fibromyalgia.163 ,164 ,165 ,166

* May help lessen the severity of attention-deficit hyperactivity

disorder (ADHD).167 ,168 ,169

* May improve growth and function of children with Tay-Sachs

disease.170

* May help with conventional drug therapy in the treatment of

muscular dystrophy.171

* May help improve growth in toddlers with failure to thrive

syndrome.172 ,173

* May improve the symptoms of dyslexia.174

* May improve serum liver enzyme levels in individuals with

hepatitis C.175

Glyconutrients In Human Breast Milk

Glyconutrients (sialic acid (NANA), fucose, galactose,

N-acetylglucosamine, and N-acetylgalactosamine) are of particular

importance to the health of newborn infants and are found in abundance

in human breast milk.176 ,177 Glyconutrients in breast milk play a key

role in the following benefits for nursing infants:

* Inhibition of respiratory viruses and killing of bacteria.177

,178 ,179 ,180

* Prevention of diarrhea caused by microbial infections.181 ,182

* Prevention of allergies.177

* Proper iron absorption.183

* Bioavailability of vitamin B12.184

* Normal, healthy development and function of the fat digestion

system.185 ,186 ,187 ,188 ,189 ,190 ,191 ,192

* Normal, healthy brain development.177 ,193 ,194 ,195

EXPANDED BENEFITS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTION Following is a list of

expanded benefits and mechanisms-of-action that includes more detailed

information about how the sugars work in the body. Overview

* Body proteins and fats bind to glyconutrients (sugars) to form

glycoconjugates (glycoproteins, glycolipids), which function as enzymes,

immune system molecules, hormones, and cell membrane transport

molecules, and are involved in all aspects of human health, structure,

and function.196 ,197 ,198

* Glyconutritional sugars, which include mannose, galactose,

fucose, xylose, glucose, sialic acid (NANA), N-acetylglucosamine, and

N-acetylgalactosamine, can be readily absorbed3 ,199 ,200 ,201 ,202 ,203

,204 ,205 ,206 ,207 and directly incorporated (glycosylated) into

glycoconjugates.2 ,204

* The body prefers to utilize glyconutritional sugars provided in

the diet, which requires less expenditure of energy and allows for more

rapid production of needed glycoconjugates.2 ,75 ,204

* Glyconutritional sugars on the surface of one cell bind to sugar

receptors on another cell, which allows the cells to communicate with

one another to develop nerves, muscles, bones, and organs, and defend

against bacterial infections and allergies.64 ,65

* Glycoconjugates and glyconutritional sugars are anchored to the

surface of cells by glycosylphosphatidylinositols, which are molecules

found in abundance in human breast milk and are of particular importance

to the health of newborn infants.176 ,177

Immune System Modulation

* Healthy immune system function depends on proper glycosylation of

immunoglobulin proteins,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 and immune cells.10

* Immunoglobulin A in human breast milk, which contains sialic acid

(NANA), fucose, galactose, N-acetylglucosamine, and

N-acetylgalactosamine, binds to allergenic substances to which the

mother has been exposed and prevents them from causing an allergic

response in nursing infants.177

* Glyconutritional sugars on the surface of blood vessel lining

cells and immune cells are important cell-cell communication signals

that direct immune cells where to leave the blood stream to access

damaged or infected tissue so they can destroy and clear away infectious

microorganisms.10 ,71 ,208

* Mannose, galactose and polysaccharides containing these sugars

facilitate wound healing11 ,12 ,13 by activating macrophages, which are

immune system cells that orchestrate the release of various bioactive

substances that modulate the immune response and tissue inflammation,14

,15 ,16 ,17 and also digest bacteria and cellular debris.11 ,18 ,19 ,20

* When macrophages digest dead blood cells and cellular debris at a

site of inflammation, they recognize which cells are dead by the

glyconutritional sugars expressed on their cell surface.209

* Glyconutritional sugars on a blood protein block the attachment

of lymphocytes (type of blood cell) to blood vessel lining cells, which

is necessary for tissue inflammation to occur.210 ,211

* Glyconutritional sugars were shown to enhance immune function in

an animal study.30

* Glyconutritional sugars have positive health implications in

asthma and rheumatoid arthritis (immune system inflammatory diseases),

since pro-inflammatory cells and molecules are suppressed by mannose or

N-acetylglucosamine.31 32 ,33 ,34

* Fucose suppresses the skin reaction of allergic contact

dermatitis,40 and sialic acid (NANA) inhibits bronchial allergic

reaction41 in animals.

* An arthritic response in animals can be prevented by giving

polymers of mannose either orally or by injection into an arthritic

joint.42 ,43

* Glucosamine, a metabolic product of N-acetylglucosamine,

substantially reduces pain and increases joint mobility in

osteoarthritis patients.44 ,45 ,46 ,47 ,48

* Patients with rheumatoid arthritis have immunoglobulin that lacks

galactose, which appears to be a factor contributing to the disease,

since the extent of missing galactose correlates with disease severity

and reverses in disease remission.212 ,213

* Blood levels of fucose are reduced in patients with rheumatoid

arthritis, and the extent of reduction correlates with the severity of

the disease.214

* Glyconutritional supplements had positive effects on patients

with lupus erythematosus.35

Cancer

* Many of the glyconutritional sugars, including fucose,49 ,50 ,51

,52 ,53 galactose12 ,49 ,54 ,55 ,56 ,57 ,58 mannose or a

mannose-containing polysaccharide49 ,59 ,60 ,61 glucosamine (metabolic

product of N-acetylglucosamine),59 ,62 and N-acetylgalactosamine,63

inhibit growth and/or tumor cell metastasis in certain cancers.

* Inhibition of cancer growth by glyconutritional sugars, such as

mannose, appears to be partially related to immune system activation of

natural killer cells, a type of white blood cell that destroys cancer

cells.16 ,215

* Glyconutritional sugars appear to inhibit tumor cell metastasis

by preventing the attachment of tumor cells to normal cells by competing

for glyconutritional sugar binding sites on the cell surfaces.216

Microbial Infection

* Glyconutritional sugars, such as mannose,66 ,67 ,68 ,69 xylose,70

or glucosamine (metabolic product of N-acetylglucosamine),62 help kill

bacteria, viruses, and fungi and/or prevent infection.71

* Mannose receptors on the surface of macrophages, cells that

ingest and destroy bacteria and are a first line of defense against

microbial attack, bind to substances on other cells that contain either

mannose or fucose and determine if the other cells are foreign invaders

which must be destroyed.18 ,71

* Glyconutritional sugars, such as mannose,66 ,217 sialic acid

(NANA),199 ,218 ,219 and fucose220 prevent infection by preventing the

attachment of bacteria and viruses to body cells by competing for

binding sites on body cell surfaces.71 ,216

* Bacteria that have glyconutritional sugar receptors on their

surface include E. coli, N. gonorrhoeae, M. tuberculosis, Salmonella,

and Staphylococci.221

* Human milk glycolipids containing sialic acid (NANA) and

oligosaccharides containing fucose protect against E. coli

enterotoxin.222 ,223

* Cell surface mucins, which are glycoproteins, help prevent

infection by blocking binding of bacteria to glyconutritional sugars on

the surface of body cells.71 ,224

* Lactoferrin, the major glycoprotein in breast milk, inhibits

growth of respiratory viruses and kills bacteria, such as E.coli,

Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Yersinia, Staphylococcus, Listeria,

and fungi.177 ,178 ,179 ,180

* Glycoproteins and oligosaccharides, which are found in breast

milk, prevent pathogen-induced diarrhea by promoting the growth of

beneficial bifidobacteria in the intestines.181 ,182

* Antiviral activity of glyconutritional sugars appears to be due

to their ability to stimulate macrophages (immune cells) to release

interferon, which is toxic to viruses,16 and to inhibit glycosylation of

the protein coating of viruses, which interferes with normal viral

function.62 ,71

* Mannose-containing saccharides and N-acetylglucosamine have been

shown to inhibit eye infection caused by an amoeba, a type of infectious

cell.72

* Mannose binding on microbial surfaces may result in enhanced

uptake and destruction of microorganisms by body cells.225 ,226

Diabetes and Metabolic Disorders

* Metabolic disorders that result from an inability to properly

metabolize glyconutritional sugars or synthesize (glycosylate) necessary

glycoconjugates, are detectable and treatable by dietary supplementation

with selective sugars.75

* Daily oral mannose administration is a successful therapy for

carbohydrate-deficient glycoprotein syndrome (CDGS), in which there is

diminished incorporation of mannose into glycoproteins.76 ,77 ,78

* Common diseases or disorders that involve abnormal glycosylation

include liver disease,227 ,228 ,229 cancer,230 ,231 ,232 ,233 ,234 and

hypothyroidism,235 while some less common ones include immunoglobulin A

nephropathy,236 I-cell disease, Hereditary Erythroblastic

Multinuclearity with Positive Acidified Serum, and Leukocyte Adhesion

Deficiency Type II.237

* Based on studies in diabetic animals, dietary supplementation

with mannose can preserve membrane metabolites, which protect the

diabetic lens from developing cataracts.84

* Dietary galactose inhibits cataract formation in animals.85

* Since N-acetylglucosamine and glucose stimulate insulin

release,238 and the metabolism of these sugars is regulated by

insulin,239 diabetics may need to adjust medications when taking large

amounts of dietary supplements containing these glyconutritional sugars.

* Since galactose does not stimulate insulin secretion in humans,

and insulin is not necessary for the utilization of galactose240 ,241

and fucose,242 there is little concern for possible metabolic

interactions in diabetics for these glyconutritional sugars.

* Glyconutritionals may help in treating diabetes based on the

results of a retrospective survey.87

* Glyconutritionals may decrease blood glucose and myofascial pain

in non-insulin dependent (Type II) diabetics based on the results of a

case report.88

Hormonal Function

* Gonadotrophin hormones are glycoproteins derived from the

pituitary gland or placenta, which control the release of many other

hormones throughout the body.197

* Glycosylation of gonadotrophin hormones affects their size,89

circulatory life span,90 ,91 ,93 ease of movement through cells94 ,95

,96 storage and secretion,97 clearance,98 ,99 immunoreactivity and

bioactivity.89

* In the case of gonadotrophin hormones, there is a direct

relationship between the glyconutritional sugar content of the hormones

and their biological activity.91 ,93 ,243 ,244 ,245 ,246 ,247 ,248 ,249

* For the majority of glycoprotein hormones, sialic acid,

galactose, and N-acetylgalactosamine are the most important

glyconutritional sugars involved in glycosylation,250 although

gonadotrophin hormones may also contain mannose, fucose, and/or

N-acetylglucosamine.93

* The cell receptor for insulin has oligosaccharide side chains

containing mannose, galactose, fucose, N-acetylglucosamine, and sialic

acid, with different cell types having different saccharide chains.79 ,80

* Insulin sensitivity varies in different parts of the body, and

these sensitivities are reflected by differences in glycosylation.251

* Malfunction of glycosylation of the insulin receptor results in

disruption of insulin synthesis and/or processing by cells.79 ,252 ,253

* The steroid anabolic hormones, testosterone and

dihydrotestosterone, require glycosylated serum binding proteins for

proper transport of the hormones throughout the body and glycosylated

cell receptors for proper function.100 ,101 ,102 ,103 ,104 ,105

* Glycosylation of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) binding

proteins affects their ability to bind IGF and regulate IGF

bioavailability.254 ,255 ,256 ,257 ,258

* Glycosylation of IGF receptors contributes to their expression106

and tissue differences,107 which affect their biological activity.

* Glycosylation of the growth hormone cell receptor is required for

normal growth hormone binding and processing by body cells.259 ,260 ,261

,262

* Glycosylation of proglucagon (glucagon hormone precursor) and the

glucagon cell receptor are necessary for proper binding and activity of

glucagon,81 ,82 ,83 a hormone responsible for regulating blood glucose

levels and insulin release.

* The glucagon-like peptide (GLP) receptor must be glycosylated for

insulin release to occur as a result of GLP released into the

circulation following ingestion of food.263

* Corticosteroid-binding globulin, a plasma glycoprotein that binds

cortisol (important in reducing the symptoms of asthma and hay fever) to

help regulate its bioavailability, contains 20-30% glyconutritional

sugars.264

* The arginine vasopressin (hormone that raises blood pressure by

constricting capillaries) precursor and receptor are glycosylated and

subject to improper glycosylation and subsequent malfunction.265 ,266 ,267

Stress

* An adequate supply of dietary glyconutritional sugars is

important during periods of body stress, since glycoconjugates

synthesized from these sugars play key roles in many aspects of tissue

healing and repair as well as cell survival.21 ,22 ,23 ,24 ,25 ,26 ,27

,28 ,29

* P-glycoprotein, a specific glycoconjugate, functions as a

membrane pump in bacteria and human cells to remove environmental

chemicals from the cells before they have a chance to exert their toxic

effects.108 ,109 ,110 ,111 ,112 ,113 ,114 ,115

* Airway mucus glycoprotein has a protective effect against lung

injury from inhaled pathogens and chemical irritants and is increased in

response to environmental stress.73 ,74

* Somatolactin, a hormone glycoprotein, appears to be important in

the adaptive response of fish to environmental stress.268 ,269 ,270

* Heat stress results in increased synthesis and glycosylation of

heat shock proteins,116 ,117 ,118 which function in the development of

heat stress tolerance119 ,120 ,121 by contributing to the protection and

damage repair of cells during and following stress.29 ,122 ,123

* Activin is a hormone glycoprotein that regulates cell

proliferation or differentiation in response to heat stress in human

cells and may have a cell survival function during periods of stress.271

* Alpha-crystallin, a glycoprotein found in the lens of the eye,

protects metabolic enzymes in the lens from inactivation by heat and

chemicals that are elevated in diabetes and renal failure and are risk

factors for cataract.86

* Stressin, a serum glycoprotein rich in sialic acid

(NANA)(glyconutritional sugar important for proper nerve function) is

elevated in military prisoners and is believed to play an important role

in the body's response to psychological stress.272 ,273

* Psychological stress results in suppression of immune system

glycoconjugate activities, which are important in preventing and

fighting infection.124 ,125 ,126 ,127

* Psychological stress results in decreased glycoprotein content of

the stomach mucosa (lining cells) and gastric mucus, which results in

ulcer-like damage, followed by increased glycoprotein synthesis of

gastric mucus, which is consistent with repair of the stomach mucosa.128

,129 ,130 ,131 ,132 ,133 ,134 ,135

* Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) receptor is a hormone

glycoprotein that regulates responses to psychological and other types

of stress by coordinating the endocrine, behavioral and immune responses

to stress through hormonal actions in the brain.136 ,137

* Both during and after exercise-induced stress, stress

glycoproteins play important roles in the transport, assembly, and

survival of stressed body cells.138 ,139

* Glycosylation of proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (part of

cell where proteins, lipids, and complex carbohydrates are synthesized

and processed in response to genetic controls) regulates protein repair

in response to cellular stress. 274 ,275 ,276 ,277 ,278 ,279 ,280 , 281

,282 ,283 ,284 ,285 ,286 ,287 ,288 ,289 ,290 , 291 ,292 ,293 ,294 ,295

,296 ,297 ,298 ,299

* During glucose deprivation stress (e.g., starvation), specific

glycoconjugates act to maximize glucose uptake and utilization by body

cells while reducing non-essential cellular demands for the reduced

supply of glucose.29 ,300 ,301 ,302 ,303 ,304 ,305 ,306

* Several specific glycoproteins mediate blood clotting and blood

vessel and tissue injury repair following stress conditions, such as

tissue abrasion, burns, or viral infection.140 ,141 ,142 ,143 ,144 ,145 ,146

* Glyconutrients helped protect against oxidative stress in

laboratory studies and a preliminary human study.147 ,148 ,149

Other Biological Effects

* Dietary galactose or glucose stimulates calcium absorption in

humans,150 which could be beneficial in preventing calcium deficiency

diseases, such as osteoporosis.

* The fucose containing portion of lactoferrin, the major

glycoprotein in human breast milk, is necessary for proper iron

absorption in infants.183

* A glycoprotein in breast milk, which contains fucose, galactose,

mannose, galactosamine, glucosamine and sialic acid (NANA), binds

vitamin B12 to make it more bioavailable.184

* A synthetic derivative of glucosamine (metabolic product of

N-acetylglucosamine) suppresses feeding activity in animals,307 which

has implications for hunger suppression in humans.

* Dietary supplementation with glucose has been shown to increase

memory in Alzheimer's patients,154 and significantly reduce craving in

smokers.155

* Glyconutritional supplementation may reduce craving for alcohol

in alcoholics.156

* Since many enzymes are glycoproteins, reduced glycosylation can

significantly alter enzyme effectiveness.308 ,309 ,310 ,311 ,312 ,313 ,314

* Glycoproteins located both within and outside the cell nucleus

that facilitate protein transport and transcription from RNA play an

important and complex role in the regulation of protein synthesis.315

,316 ,317 ,318

* Glycosylation of the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor is

necessary for its proper functioning in the processing of cholesterol by

LDL.157 ,158 ,159

* Glycolipids containing sialic acid, galactose, glucose, and

ceramide, which are found in human breast milk, are important for normal

brain development, since they form essential components of the

developing nervous system.177 ,193 ,194 ,195

* Glycosylation of nerve membrane glycoproteins that transport

chemicals involved in nerve impulse transmission helps regulate proper

nerve function.160 ,161 ,162

* Breast milk glycoconjugates and highly glycosylated enzymes

containing fucose, galactose, glucosamine, galactosamine, and sialic

acid (NANA), are important for normal development and function of the

fat digestion system in infants.185 ,186 ,187 ,188 ,189 ,190 ,191 ,192

* Mucins, which are glycoproteins produced by the body, are

secreted in the intestine, and are important in the protection and

normal function of the gastrointestinal tract.151 ,152

* Dietary galactose and glucose are important in maintaining normal

colonic bacteria, which is necessary for healthy digestion.153

* Glyconutrients may help relieve symptoms of chronic fatigue

syndrome and fibromyalgia.163 ,164 ,165 ,166

* Glyconutrients may help lessen the severity of attention-deficit

hyperactivity disorder.167 ,168 ,169

* Glyconutrients may help with conventional drug therapy in the

treatment of muscular dystrophy.171

* Glyconutrients may help improve growth in toddlers with failure

to thrive syndrome.172 ,173

* Glyconutrients may improve growth and function of children with

Tay-Sachs disease.170

* Glyconutrients may improve the symptoms of dyslexia.174

* Glyconutrients may improve serum liver enzyme levels in

individuals with hepatitis C.175

* Glyconutritional supplements improved the symptoms of periodontal

disease, canker sores, and fever blisters in case reports. 36 ,37 ,38 ,39

Safety Issues

Adverse reactions to dietary supplements are rare.319 Adverse effects

caused by dietary glyconutritional sugars are extremely rare and require

dosages far exceeding that found in the normal diet.320 For example, one

report noted an adverse event when an animal was administered a single

amino sugar (galactosamine) at an amount equivalent to 28 grams taken by

a 150-lb human.207

Date last modified: July 06, 2001

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