Re: History of resistance training

[Guest guest]

Webster's (now difficult to obtain) book, " The Iron Game "

makes for

fascinating reading in this regard. Ch 1 of " Supertraining " provides

a

summary of the development of strength training and weightlifting.

The Todds

have one of the largest collection of Iron Game historical

information in the

Western world: their website is at:

http://www.edb.utexas.edu/Todd-McLean/

The Sandow Museum also provides a great deal of information on the

old time

greats of the Iron Game:

http://www.sandowmuseum.com/index.html

The following Sandow site also provides plenty of information on many

of the

old strength legends:

http://www.sandow.plus.com/

http://www.sandowplus.co.uk/

http://www.aafla.org/5va/over_frmst.htm

=====================

Resistance training

Resistance training has grown from being a minority interest to a substantial

area of awareness and interest (Todd, 1994). It has to be appreciated, however,

that there is an evolution and history behind resistance training (Todd, 1993).

In fact, only recently has resistance training become more of a scientific

discipline. This science did not suddenly occur, but it is the cumulating point

of thousands of years of trial and error methods of training (Siff, 2000a).

History

Although the ancient Egyptians, the ancient Chinese, the ancient Indians and

many other early civilisations practised resistance training, credit has

traditionally been given to the ancient Greeks, and for producing the

forerunners of our modern weight training equipment (Webster, 1976). During the

Chou dynasty (1122-249 BC) potential soldiers had to succeed in weight lifting

tests before being allowed to enter into the armed forces (Webster, 1976).

Additionally, the Roman males trained for military fitness using resistance

training methods (Todd, 1995). The major world powers throughout history have

all left evidence of resistance training being utilised during their respective

periods of rule (Haycock, 2002). Galen (129–199 AD), the most outstanding

physician of ancient times since Hippocrates, classified exercises into those

that exercised the muscles without violent movement similar to weightlifting,

quick exercises that promote activity similar to ball play and violent exercises

(Todd, 1994). The sixth century BC, in fact, was known as the ‘Age of Strength’

and weightlifting competitions involved lifting huge stones (Siff, 2000a).

Resistance training was not restricted to men; a wall mosaic from a Roman villa

in Piazza Armerina portrayed a woman exercising with weights (Fig. 1.1)

Due to the continual quest for betterment, numerous books began to emerge on

resistance training during the sixteenth century including Sir Elyot’s

book published in England in 1531 who recommended that Galen’s exercise advice

should be examined.

Joachim Camerius (1544), a lecturer at Leipzig University wrote several books

recommending resistance training (Webster, 1976). Other books appeared later,

including that of Eugene Sandow’s System of Physical Training (1894) followed by

the United States Army’s Manual of Physical Training and later, Earl Liederman’s

Muscle Building (1924). At this point in time resistance training was being

practised not just as a means of survival and defending oneself, but there

seemed to be an idea of muscular development similar to that of the Greek ideal

(Schwarzenegger, 2000). The concept that physical activity may have had a

relationship with health emerged, which was most noticeable in America, whilst

in Europe resistance training was a means of entertainment with ‘strongmen’

taking part in competitions to see who could lift the most weight; such men were

pot bellied, beer drinkers (, 1992).

Eugene Sandow born in Koningsberg in East Russia in 1867 went to America in 1890

from Europe where he made his mark as a professional strongman (Gaines and

, 1974). He, unlike the others, was aesthetic-looking, whose physique was

muscular in comparison to that of the ‘strongmen.’ Sandow was an exhibitionist

who showed his body off wherever he went and gained admiration. Sandow’s

popularity grew considerably and, as a result, sales of barbells and dumbbells

increased (Schwarzenegger, 2000; Todd, 1995). As part of his vision, he pressed

for the introduction of physical education and sport as compulsory school

subjects and the regular examination of pupils by school doctors and dentists.

Sandow had started a whole new revolution from this point onwards and the

theoretical and practical importance of resistance training grew steadily.

According to Siff (2000a) Sandow was one of the most important founding fathers

of the fitness revolution.

Sandow’s methods concentrated predominantly on the development of strength and

skill as the foundation of health. However, this approach was overthrown more

than half a century later by cardiovascular scientists, principally Dr

of the USA who frowned and downplayed the role of these fitness

qualities, stressing ‘aerobics’ as being far more important to general fitness

and health (Siff, 2000a; Hatfield, 1989). Various coaches and athletes used to

believe that resistance training would hinder sports performance and anyone who

did train with weights was considered foolish and misinformed (Todd, 2000).

Even today research into cardiovascular training attracts considerably more

attention relative to ‘aerobics’ from scientists and there remains numerous

fallacies concerning resistance training due to cardiovascular doctrine which

still seems to control the fitness conscious psyche (Siff, 2000a).

In the 1950s, research into the field of strength training increased.

Investigators experimented with more specific training prescriptions (Benedict,

1999) and the walls of prejudice began to weaken and, in places, give way (Todd,

1994). Science has been slowly validating the anecdotal evidence, yet is still

in its infancy and it has probably not reached its ultimate goal (Siff, 2000a).

Time and costs have affected the slow pace of science, in addition to various

errors in methodologies, including failure to control variances and confounding

factors such as the effect of learning when testing for strength (Rutherford and

, 1986).

Recently, the Journal of Strength and Conditioning, the official journal of the

National Strength and Conditioning Association, reached a significant landmark

of success (Chandler, 2002). The journal was accepted for inclusion into the

index of Medicus, a highly respected journal index, through the National Library

of Medicine (NLM), a part of the National’s Institute of Health (NIH) which

demonstrates continual growth and recognition in strength and conditioning

(Chandler, 2002). Resistance training became the most popular fitness activity

in America in 1995 as measured by the Fitness Products’ Council and has remained

on top ever since. According to the Fitness Products’ Council as published in

the 1998 edition of tracking the fitness movement:

• The number of females exercising with weights has nearly doubled. In 1987,

7.4 million women reportedly used free weights compared to 16.8 million a decade

later.

• Health club memberships are growing. A 63% increase occurred between 1987 and

1997, with the fastest population being the 35-54 group (100%).

• Home exercise equipment use is on the rise. Nearly a third of all households

in America owned and used home exercise equipment in 1997.

• The 35-54 age group had reported 12 million free weight users in 1997 compared

to 4.1 million in 1987.

======================

Carruthers

Wakefield, UK

[Guest guest]

Strength training has always been synonymous with the so-called " Iron

Game, " a broad generic term that includes the competitive lifting of

heavy objects by " strongmen/women " during the last century or so.

Feats of lifting strength, however, have appeared throughout the

history of most nations, but it has only been in very recent times

that training to produce strength has become a scientific discipline.

Mel C Siff Ph.D.

This science did not arise overnight, but is the culminating

point of thousands of years of trial-and-error methods of training.

The earliest reference to formal strength training occurs in Chinese

texts dating as far back as 3600BC when emperors made their subjects

exercise daily (Webster, 1976). During the Chou dynasty (1122-249BC)

potential soldiers had to pass weight-lifting tests before being

allowed to enter the armed forces.

Editor's Note: Weight-lifting in the first part of this article

refers to the actual lifting of various objects, or weights,

not " weightlifting, " which is the proper term for what many people

think of as Olympic lifting.

There is abundant evidence that weight training was used in ancient

Egypt and India, while the Greeks left numerous sculptures and

illustrations of their athletes training with stone weights. The 6th

century BC was known as the " Age of Strength " where competitions

involved the lifting of huge stones. The renowned ancient physician,

Galen, referred frequently to exercising with weights (halteres). His

treatise Preservation of Health even classified exercises

into " quick " (exercises without weights) and " violent " exercises

(performed with weights). The Roman poet Martial (40-104AD)

pondered: " Why do the strong men labour with their stupid dumbbells?

A far better task for men is digging. "

It should not be surprising then, that the quest for superior

strength led to numerous systems of strength training, thereby laying

a solid experiential foundation for the far more refined methods of

today.

During the 16th century in Europe, books on weight-training began to

emerge, with Sir Elyot's text on the topic being published in

England in 1531. Several universities in France and Germany offered

weight training. In 1544, Joachim Camerius, a lecturer at Leipzig

University, wrote several books recommending weight training as an

essential activity for the model school. In 1728, Paugh

published A Physiological, Theoretic and Practical Treatise on the

Utility of Muscular Exercise for Restoring the Power to the Limbs,

revealing that even then it was recognised that weight training

offered therapeutic benefits. In the 1860s, the Scot, Archibald

MacLaren, compiled the first system of physical training with

dumbbells and barbells for the British Army and formalised a crude

form of progressive overloading. Some of his ideas appeared in

McMillan's Magazine (1863) in his article, National Systems of Bodily

Exercise, which compared various systems of physical training used at

that time.

Pioneers of Strength Training

The path to strength training science is synonymous with the history

of many of the legendary heroes of yesteryear, ranging from the

biblical Samson and the bull-lifting Milo of Italy to the Russian

superheavy weightlifter, eyev. The showmen and strongman

entertainers of 19th century Europe, in particular, laid the most

solid foundations for the systematic development of formal strength

and physique training methods and the eventual acceptance of the use

of these methods in the general fitness and sports specific strength

training revolution of today.

Space permits the mention of only a few of these pioneering strongmen

of the past, so the history-minded reader is well advised to read

Webster's fascinating and thorough book, The Iron Game, which

presents the feats of these men from the distant past to 1975, upon

which this brief summary is based.

On the basis of many years of research, Webster isolates the Italian

circus and fairground performer, Felice Napoli, as the initiator of

the strongman boom on an international scale. Born in 1820, some of

his most illustrious disciples included Professor Attila (Louis

Durlacher) and Eugen Sandow (Frederick Muller).

The German-born Attila, in turn, became so well-known that he

attracted as his pupils some of the world's most famous physical

culturalists and many rulers of Europe. Royalty whom he taught

included King of Greece, King of England (while he was

Prince of Wales), Crown Prince Frederick who became King Haakon of

Norway, the six children of King Christian of Denmark, the Queen

Mother andra of England, Princess Dagmar (who became Empress of

Russia and mother of Tsar ), and the Duchess of Cumberland.

At the time, the training of royalty, the wealthy and the famous with

weights and specialised exercises was a well-established and

desirable profession, predating the current generation of so-called

personal trainers by about 150 years.

The fame and fortune of the strongmen of those days were a result of

their regular and well-publicised one-on-one stage challenges and

entertainment-hall competitions using some highly individual and

unusual one and two arm lifts, swings, supports and manoeuvres

against loads of vehicles, humans and specially contrived barbells

and dumbbells. These events, much like the music hall performances of

famous composers and musicians, were often attended by royalty and

the wealthy, and served to publicise these men, not only as

entertainers, but also as teachers or mentors of " physical culture. "

The great Sandow, born in Koningsberg in East Russia in 1867, was

sought out by presidents and rulers from all around the world, with

his book, Life Is Movement being received enthusiastically by nine

kings and queens and many princes of Europe, as well as U.S.

Presidents Taft and Woodrow . Besides defeating many

strongmen of his time, he was a generous sponsor of many charitable

causes and an early champion of more hygienic conditions of working

and living for all, including the central role of formal fitness and

health management.

As part of his vision, he pressed for the introduction of physical

education and sport as compulsory school subjects, and the regular

examination of pupils by school doctors and dentists.

Concurrently he toured the world lecturing to promote physical

culture as a means of improving quality of life, with his

contributions being described as follows by Mirror of Life and Sport

(8 April 1911):

" His Majesty King has conferred an unique honour upon Mr.

Eugen Sandow, the world-renowned exponent and founder of scientific

physical culture, Mr. Sandow just having had the honour of being

appointed Professor of Scientific Physical Culture to his Majesty.

The keen interest which the King has always taken in the physical

welfare of his people is well-known, and there is no desire more dear

to his Majesty's heart than to improve the conditions of life for the

masses. Mr. Sandow's appointment must be regarded as a striking

recognition of the undoubted benefits of scientific physical culture,

and there is no doubt that the interest shown by his Majesty in the

subject will considerably increase the popularity of the science of

which Mr. Sandow is the principal authority. Mr. Sandow is a man who

has risen by his own unaided effort to a position in which he is not

only a national but a world factor in the science of improvement of

the human body and the combating of that physical degeneracy which in

former eras has always accompanied the advances of civilisation. "

In many respects, therefore, Sandow was one of the most important

founding fathers of the fitness revolution, with the history of his

efforts revealing that the modern phenomenon of science-based

physical training is by no means novel or innovative.

Interestingly, Sandow's methods focused largely on the development of

strength and skill as the foundation of health, an approach which was

almost completely deposed more than half a century later by

cardiovascular scientists such as Dr of the USA. These

individuals massively downplayed the role of these fitness qualities

and stressed " aerobic " fitness as being far more important to general

health. It has taken more than 25 years for the quality of strength

advocated by Sandow to return to academic acceptance.

In Russia, during this same period, the eminent Polish-born

physician, Vladislav Krayevsky (or Krajewski), founded the St.

sburg Amateur Weightlifting Society (1885), having visited

various German towns to familiarise himself with what was already

known throughout Europe as weightlifting or 'heavy athletics'

(or 'Tyazhelaya Atletika', the name still used in Russia to describe

this sport), because of his great interest in the use of physical

culture for the prevention and treatment of illness. Many prominent

scientists, artists and athletes became his pupils, including another

famous strongman, Hackenschmidt, who credited Krayevsky for

teaching him all that he knew.

Editor's Note: The term " weightlifting in the above paragraph and in

those below now refers to the sport itself, or Olympic lifting.

Hackenschmidt, in his book, The Way to Live, added that some of the

world's strongest men of that era, including Sandow, were trained

according to Krayevsky's system. Krayevsky's considerable knowledge

in medicine, psychology, physical culture, methods of using exercises

and organizational abilities made him an acknowledged leader in

weightlifting sports (including wrestling). He not only promoted

weightlifting, taught classes and organized competitions, but also

lifted himself, achieving significant success in barbell lifts.

Krayevsky was president of the jury at the first world championships

in Vienna in 1898. His personal example, enthusiasm, authority and

the popularity of his group of distinguished students had a major

effect on the development of weightlifting in Russia.

Krayevsky wrote two of his fundamental works during the period 1896-

1899, one of them being The Catechism of Health - Rules for Athletes.

Although this work was sent to press on December 9, 1899, it was

never published and is now preserved only in manuscript form. His

other book, The Development of Physical Strength with Kettlebells and

Without Kettlebells, however, was published in 1900 and reprinted

three times (1902, 1909, 1916) after his death in 1901.

Krayevsky felt that many of the limitations imposed by heredity could

be overcome by appropriate training.

Krayevsky displayed an excellent knowledge of the history of physical

culture and all forms of gymnastics. He paid special attention to

therapeutic gymnastics in his Diagram of Medico Gymnastic Uses and

its accompanying detailed commentary. Krayevsky was very familiar

with Swedish gymnastics and noted its therapeutic applications, but

his concern with the lack of scientific substantiation of the Swedish

system led him to recruit Russian experimentalists to research it.

Many of Krayevsky's methodological recommendations are still valid

and include medical control of the athlete's health, regularity of

workouts and planned sequencing of increasing loads, multi-faceted

physical development, psychological management, observation of

wellness rules (especially sleep) and refraining from the use of

alcohol and smoking. Krayevsky was especially concerned with forming

correct breathing habits and methods of combating fatigue, and felt

that many of the limitations imposed by heredity could be overcome by

appropriate training.

Many of these early strength pioneers devised interesting and unique

training weights and machines, including cable machines, variable

resistance machines using cams and levers, elastic springs and

cables, friction resistance devices, kettlebells, thick-grip bars,

hollow-ended barbells and dumbbells whose weight could be increased

by adding lead shot, odd-shaped bars, isolation machines, weighted

boots and various throwing devices. Yet there are those today who lay

claims of originality to designing these machines more than 50 years

after their original manufacture.

In addition, a large number of weight training, bodybuilding

exercises and techniques which are believed to be original today had

been tried and tested in that burgeoning exploration era of finding

the best methods of strength training.

The Divergence of Training Philosophies

The development of different scientific and educational cultures in

the West and the East had a profound impact on the growth of the

different aspects of strength and general fitness training. In the

earliest days of the strength game, most of the strong men traveled

extensively to learn from colleagues and teachers with different

outlooks and were keen to be apprenticed to those whose knowledge

attracted widespread attention.

With the advent of World War I, the growth of the United States into

a great power, the advent of communism and other controversial

philosophies and economies, nationalism reached greater heights than

ever before in Europe. The Great Depression followed a few decades

later, leading to World War II and the partitioning of the world into

an Eastern and a Western bloc.

....within a few decades after World War II there were at least a

million Olympic lifters

in the USSR alone.

The increasing ideological isolation of nations and well-protected

prestige of sporting success meant that research in all fields,

including sport, took different directions. During the years after

both World Wars, Russia and Europe still continued to promote the

virtues of physical strength and power, whereas research in the West

rapidly veered in the direction of cardiovascular fitness, assuming

great impetus with the " running for health " and " aerobics " crazes

associated closely with Swedish endurance exercise research and

popular fitness books such as 's Aerobics.

This resulted in a vigorous promotion of the cardiovascular doctrine,

the paradigm which maintains that cardiac and general health depends

predominantly on prolonged endurance, or " aerobic " exercise. At the

same time, proponents of this doctrine fairly vigorously denigrated

the health benefits of strength training. For example, (1968:

p25) stated that,

" If it's muscles or a body beautiful, you'll get it from

weightlifting or calisthenics, but not much more. . . If it's the

overall health of your body you're interested in, isometrics won't do

it for you, neither will isotonics or anaerobics. Aerobic exercises

are the only ones that will. "

It was inevitable that the accompanying high profile marketing and

media campaigns -- extensively underwritten by the medical

profession -- would make the pursuit of strength-oriented sports

considerably less attractive in the public eye. Olympic Weightlifting

became, and still is, a rarity in schools in the West as strong young

men are steered more in the direction of sports such as American

football and rugby, games which by mere acceptance into the school

curriculum ensure a huge pool of talent.

While and his colleagues were espousing aerobics, the Russians

and Eastern Europeans accumulated extensive international information

on strength and sports training while developing a vast research

effort into these topics. In addition, they established a vast

coaching and educational sports programme. Most schools offered

weightlifting (Olympic Lifting) and within a few decades after World

War II there were at least a million Olympic lifters in the USSR

alone.

Besides its application in competitive weightlifting, strength

training became an integral part of all sports training in Russia,

whereas in the West, the attitude more often was one which claimed

that weight training slowed one down, made for unnecessary bulk and

reduced flexibility. Quite predictably, Russia began to dominate the

Olympic Games, especially in Olympic weightlifting, at the same time

that the cardiovascular doctrine began to dominate the West.

This Russian dominance often has been simplistically attributed to

the extensive use of drugs such as androgenic-anabolic steroids, but

ironically, the synthesis and sporting use of these drugs was

pioneered in the West. It is more accurate to state that the use of

such drugs became equally extensive in East and West and that

dominance in many international sports by Eastern nations was more a

consequence of several other vital factors, especially strength

science and organisational systems.

The West today would appear to have reaccepted a useful role for

strength training, but the proliferation of weight training

facilities and personal trainers still has much more to do with

commercialism than the impact of strength science, as is emphasized

by the fact that the cardiovascular doctrine still dominates the

fitness conscious psyche. There are few schools which offer Olympic

lifting and there are fewer competitive lifters than ever before.

The Modern Era Dawns

The systems of training of the early pioneers touched upon above

ultimately formed the framework of modern competitive bodybuilding

and weightlifting, with some of the exercise techniques and machines

being adopted into physiotherapy and the coaching regimes for other

sports. Yet, serious scientific research into strength training only

developed well into the 20th Century and, as we have seen, even now

research into cardiovascular training attracts considerably more

attention from scientists. Nevertheless, the evolution of resistance

training in several different directions has produced an invaluable

data base from the following distinct sources:

• Weightlifting and powerlifting (competitive performance

against maximal resistance).

• Bodybuilding (resistance training to maximise muscle

hypertrophy).

• Supplementary resistance training (resistance exercise to

enhance fitness in other sports).

• Physiotherapy (resistance exercise for rehabilitation).

• Scientific research (analysis to understand resistance

exercise scientifically).

The above sources of information suggested to me more than a decade

ago that it would be beneficial to write an extensive textbook which

draws from all of these disciplines to present an integrated approach

to the use of strength conditioning to enhance fitness training,

bodybuilding and performance in all top level sport. Throughout, my

approach was to reconcile competitive weightlifting, powerlifting,

bodybuilding and sporting performance with scientific and medical

research because the vast percentage of books in strength and fitness

training tend to adopt one limited, often dogmatic approach.

===================

Carruthers

Wakefield, UK

[Guest guest]

The Todd-McLean Physical Culture archives publishes Iron Game History,

a quarterly periodical. At least ten years of it are online in pdf

format on an article-by-article basis through awebsite in Los Angeles

(http://la84foundation.org/index/IronGame.html).

Randall Strossen, PhD, at www.ironmind.com has published Milo for more

than a decade, yet another excellent publication. Aside from Milo he

sells and publishes other works of interest. Bruce Wilhelm, for

example, has done books on Pat Casey and others. Also included in

offerings are remainders of Peary Rader's booklet on isometronic

training, a very effective early approach to power rack training from

the early 60s.

Ken O'Neill

Austin, Texas

>

> Hi All,

>

> Does anyone know if some good resources on the history of resistance

training

> i.e books or web sites etc.

>

> Many thanks,

>

>

> Wellington

> New Zealand

> [Mod: full name, many thanks]

>

[Guest guest]

>

> Hi All,

>

> Does anyone know if some good resources on the history of

resistance training

> i.e books or web sites etc.

>

******

The below may be helpful:

The Golden Age of the Iron Men:

http://www.sandowplus.co.uk/Competition/compindex.htm#hoff

-------------

http://www.cbass.com/ANDERSON.HTM

-----------

1. The Expansion of Resistance Training in U.S. Higher Education

Through the Mid-1960's Terry Todd, Iron Game History, August, 1994,

Vol. 3, No. 4, p. 11-16. (pdf)

http://www.aafla.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0304/IGH0304e.pdf#xml=http:/

/www.aafla.org/search/highlight.gtf?nth=1 & handle=0000019c

2. Science Discovers Strength: The Growth of Weight Training in

Athletics, 1950-1970 Nick Bourne, Jan Todd, North American Society

For Sport History. Proceedings and Newsletter, 2000, p. 28-29. (pdf)

http://www.aafla.org/SportsLibrary/NASSH%

5FProceedings/NP2000/NP2000y.pdf#xml=http://www.aafla.org/search/highl

ight.gtf?nth=7 & handle=0000019e

3. Reflections on Musclebinding Al , Iron Game History, April,

1992, Vol. 2, No. 2, p. 1-3.

(pdf)

http://www.aafla.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0202/IGH0202a.pdf#xml=http:/

/www.aafla.org/search/highlight.gtf?nth=9 & handle=0000019e

4. " Strength is Health " : Barker Windship and the First

American Weight Training Boom Jan Todd, Iron Game History, September,

1993, Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 3-14. (pdf)

http://www.aafla.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0301/IGH0301c.pdf#xml=http:/

/www.aafla.org/search/highlight.gtf?nth=14 & handle=0000019e

5. From Milo to Milo: A History of Barbells, Dumbbells, and Indian

Clubs Jan Todd, Iron Game History, April, 1995, Vol. 3, No. 6, p. 4-

16.

http://www.aafla.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0306/IGH0306c.pdf#xml=http:/

/www.aafla.org/search/highlight.gtf?nth=1 & handle=0000019f

-------------

http://www.naturalstrength.com/history/history.html

---------------------

http://www.cbass.com/ANDERSON.HTM

==================

Carruthers

Wakefield, UK

[Guest guest]

,

To point to the obvious, Mel Siff's *Supertraining *includes quite a bit of

material on the history of strength training. If you go to

www.superstrengthbooks.com, you will find additional sources, including

books about early strongmen. It's interesting stuff.

Pitruzzello, Ph.D.

Chicago, IL

> Hi All,

>

> Does anyone know if some good resources on the history of resistance

> training

> i.e books or web sites etc.

>

> Many thanks,

>

>

> Wellington

> New Zealand

> [Mod: full name, many thanks]

>

>