Guest guest Posted April 16, 2005 Report Share Posted April 16, 2005 It's easier to read this from the website. Very long and technical. Still, it's well worth reading if you want to understand the platinum issue. - Rogene ==================================== http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc125.htm INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME ON CHEMICAL SAFETY ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA 125 Platinum This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, or the World Health Organization. Published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization First draft prepared by Dr. G. Rosner, Dr. H.P. König, and Dr. D. Coenen-Stass, Fraunhofer Institute of Toxicology and Aerosol Research, Germany World Health Orgnization Geneva, 1991 The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) is a joint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization. The main objective of the IPCS is to carry out and disseminate evaluations of the effects of chemicals on human health and the quality of the environment. Supporting activities include the development of epidemiological, experimental laboratory, and risk-assessment methods that could produce internationally comparable results, and the development of manpower in the field of toxicology. Other activities carried out by the IPCS include the development of know-how for coping with chemical accidents, coordination of laboratory testing and epidemiological studies, and promotion of research on the mechanisms of the biological action of chemicals. WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Platinum. (Environmental health criteria: 125) 1. Platinum - adverse effects 2. Platinum - toxicity 3. Environmental exposure I.Series ISBN 92 4 157125 X (LC Classification QD 181.P8) ISSN 0250-863X © World Health Organization 1991 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. For rights of reproduction or translation of WHO publications, in part or in toto, application should be made to the Office of Publications, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. The World Health Organization welcomes such applications. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the impression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of every country, territory, city, or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. CONTENTS ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR PLATINUM 1. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1.1. Identity, physical and chemical properties, analytical methods 1.2. Sources of human and environmental exposure 1.3. Environmental transport, distribution, and transformation 1.4. Environmental levels and human exposure 1.5. Kinetics and metabolism 1.6. Effects on laboratory mammals and in vitro test systems 1.7. Effects on humans 1.8. Effects on other organisms in the laboratory and field 2. IDENTITY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, ANALYTICAL METHODS 2.1. Identity 2.2. Physical and chemical properties 2.2.1. Platinum metal 2.2.2. Platinum compounds 2.3. Conversion factors 2.4. Analytical methods 2.4.1. Sampling 2.4.2. Sample pretreatment 2.4.3. Detection and measurement 2.4.3.1 Spectrophotometry 2.4.3.2 Radiochemical methods 2.4.3.3 X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy 2.4.3.4 Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis 2.4.3.5 Electrochemical analysis 2.4.3.6 Proton-induced X-ray emission 2.4.3.7 Liquid chromatography 2.4.3.8 Atomic absorption spectrometry 2.4.3.9 Inductively coupled plasma 2.4.3.10 Inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry 3. SOURCES OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE 3.1. Natural occurrence 3.2. Anthropogenic sources 3.2.1. Production levels and processes 3.2.1.1 World production figures 3.2.1.2 Manufacturing processes 3.2.1.3 Emissions from stationary sources 3.2.1.4 Emissions from automobile catalysts 3.2.2. Uses 4. ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION, AND TRANSFORMATION 4.1. Transport and distribution between media 4.2. Biotransformation 4.3. Ultimate fate following use 5. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE 5.1. Environmental levels 5.1.1. Ambient air 5.1.2. Water and sediments 5.1.3. Soil 5.1.4. Food 5.1.5. Terrestrial and aquatic organisms 5.2. General population exposure 5.3. Occupational exposure during manufacture, formulation or use 6. KINETICS AND METABOLISM 7. EFFECTS ON LABORATORY MAMMALS AND IN VITRO TEST SYSTEMS 7.1. Single exposure 7.2. Short-term exposure 7.3. Skin and eye irritation; skin and respiratory sensitization 7.3.1. Skin irritation 7.3.2. Eye irritation 7.3.3. Skin sensitization 7.3.4. Skin and respiratory sensitization 7.3.5. Respiratory sensitization 7.3.6. Sensitization by other routes 7.4. Reproductive toxicity, embryotoxicity, and teratogenicity 7.5. Mutagenicity and related end-points 7.6. Carcinogenicity and anticarcinogenicity 7.7. Other special studies 7.7.1. Effects on alveolar macrophages 7.7.2. Non-allergic mediator release 7.7.3. Effects on mitochondrial function 7.7.4. Effects on the nervous system 7.7.5. Side effects on cisplatin and its analogues 7.8. Factors modifying toxicity 8. EFFECTS ON HUMANS 8.1. General population exposure 8.1.1. Acute toxicity - poisoning 8.1.2. Effects of exposure to platinum emitted from automobile catalysts 8.2. Occupational exposure 8.2.1. Case reports and cross-sectional studies 8.2.2. Allergenicity of platinum and platinum compounds 8.2.3. Clinical manifestations 8.2.4. Immunological mechanism and diagnosis 8.2.5. Predisposing factors 8.3. Side effects of cisplatin 8.4. Carcinogenicity 9. EFFECTS ON OTHER ORGANISMS IN THE LABORATORY AND FIELD 9.1. Microorganisms 9.2. Aquatic organisms 9.2.1. Plants 9.2.2. Animals 9.3. Terrestrial organisms 10. EVALUATION OF HUMAN HEALTH RISKS AND EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT 10.1. Evaluation of human health risks 10.1.1. General population exposure 10.1.1.1 Exposure 10.1.1.2 Health effects 10.1.2. Occupational groups 10.1.2.1 Exposure 10.1.2.2 Health effects 10.2. Evaluation of effects on the environment 11. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PROTECTION OF HUMAN HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT 11.1. Pre-employment screening and medical evaluations 11.2. Substitution with non-allergenic substances 11.3. Employment screening and medical evaluations 11.4. Workplace hygiene 12. FURTHER RESEARCH 13. PREVIOUS EVALUATIONS BY INTERNATIONAL BODIES REFERENCES RESUME RESUMEN WHO TASK GROUP ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR PLATINUM Members Dr V. Bencko, Institute of Hygiene, University, Prague, Czechoslovakia Dr R.E. Biagini, Division of Biomedical and Behavioral Sciences, National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA (Joint Rapporteur) Dr I. Farkas, National Institute of Hygiene, Budapest, Hungary Dr U. Heinrich, Department of Environmental Hygiene, Fraunhofer Institute of Toxicology and Aerosol Research, Hanover, Germany Dr R. Hertel, Fraunhofer Institute of Toxicology and Aerosol Research, Hanover, Germany Professor G. Kazantzis, Centre for Environmental Technology, Royal School of Mines, London, United Kingdom Professor A. Massoud, Department of Community, Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt (Chairman) Dr R. Merget, Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital of the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, furt am Main, Germany Dr G. Rosner, Fraunhofer Institute of Toxicology and Aerosol Research, Hanover, Germany (Joint Rapporteur) Dr A.E. Soyombo, Environmental & Occupational Health Division, Federal Ministry of Health, Lagos, Nigeria (Vice-Chairman) Observers Dr C.W. Bradford, Environmental, Health and Safety Services, Matthey Technology Centre, Reading, United Kingdom Dr W.E. Mayr, Industrial Toxicology Department, Degussa AG, Hanau- Wolfgang, Germany Secretariat Dr P.G. , International Programme on Chemical Safety, Division of Environmental Health, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland Dr E.M. , International Programme on Chemical Safety, Division of Environmental Health, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland NOTE TO READERS OF THE CRITERIA DOCUMENTS Every effort has been made to present information in the criteria documents as accurately as possible without unduly delaying their publication. In the interest of all users of the environmental health criteria documents, readers are kindly requested to communicate any errors that may have occurred to the Manager of the International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, in order that they may be included in corrigenda, which will appear in subsequent volumes. * * * A detailed data profile can be obtained from the International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals, Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland (Telephone No. 7988400 or 7985850). ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR PLATINUM The WHO Task Group on Environmental Health Criteria for Platinum met in Rome, Italy, from 3 to 7 December 1990. Dr A. Mochi opened the meeting on behalf of the host country and Dr E. welcomed the participants on behalf of the heads of the three IPCS cooperating organizations (UNEP/ILO/WHO). The Task Group reviewed and revised the draft monograph and made an evaluation of the risks for human health and the environment from exposure to platinum and certain platinum salts. The first draft of this document was prepared by Dr G. Rosner, Dr H.P. König, and Dr D. Coenen-Stass, Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Aerosol Research, Hanover, Germany. The second draft was prepared by Dr G. Rosner following circulation of the first draft to IPCS contact points. Particularly valuable comments on the draft were made by the European Chemical Industry Ecology and Toxicology Centre (ECETOC), the US Environmental Protection Agency, Food and Drug Administration, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, and Centers for Disease Control, the United Kingdom Department of Health, and the National Institute of Public Health, Norway. Dr C.W. Bradford gave valuable assistance in verifying the nomenclature of platinum compounds. Dr E.M. and Dr P.G. , both members of the IPCS Central Unit, were responsible for the overall scientific content and technical editing, respectively, of this monograph. The efforts of all who helped in the preparation and finalization of the document are gratefully acknowledged. * * * Financial support for the meeting was provided by the Ministry of the Environment of Italy. The Centro Italiano Studi e Indagini undertook the organization and provision of meeting facilities. Partial financial support for the publication of this monograph was kindly provided by the United States Department of Health and Human Services, through a contract from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA - a WHO Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health Effects. ABBREVIATIONS AAS atomic absorption spectrometry BSA bovine serum albumin DC direct current DNA deoxyribonucleic acid ESCA electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis ETV electrothermal vaporization HSA human serum albumin ICP inductively coupled plasma Ig immunoglobulin LC liquid chromatography LC50 median lethal concentration MeB12 methylcobalamin MS mass spectrometry OVA ovalbumin PCA passive cutaneous anaphylaxis PGM platinum-group metals PIXE proton-induced X-ray emission PSH platinum salt hypersensitivity RAST radioallergosorbent test TLV threshold limit value TWA time-weighted average UV ultraviolet MOLECULAR FORMULAE OF PLATINUM COMPOUNDS PtO platinum(II) oxide PtO2 platinum(IV) oxide PtCl2 platinum(II) chloride PtCl4 platinum(IV) chloride Pt(NO3)2 platinum(II) nitrate Pt(SO4)2 platinum(IV) sulfate H2[PtCl4] hydrogen tetrachloroplatinate(II) H2[PtCl6] hydrogen hexachloroplatinate(IV) (commonly known as hexachloroplatinic acid) H2[Pt(NO2)2SO4] hydrogen dinitrosulfatoplatinate(II) cis-[PtCl2(NH3)2] cis- diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (commonly known as cisplatin) trans-[PtCl2(NH3)2] trans- diamminedichloroplatinum(II) [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2 tetraammineplatinum(II) chloride [Pt(NO2)2(NH3)2] diamminedinitroplatinum(II) [Pt(C5H7O2)2] bis(pentane-2,4- dionato)platinum(II) (commonly known as bis(acetylacetonato)platinum(II)) [Pt{NH2)2CS}4]Cl2 tetrakis(thiourea)platinum(II) dichloride K2[PtCl4] potassium tetrachloroplatinate(II) K2[PtCl6] potassium hexachloroplatinate(IV) K2[Pt(CN)4] potassium tetracyanoplatinate(II) K[PtCl3(NH3)] potassium amminetrichloroplati nate(II) K2[Pt(NO2)4] potassium tetranitroplatinate(II) Na2[PtCl4] sodium tetrachloroplatinate(II) Na2[PtCl6] sodium hexachloroplatinate(IV) Na2[Pt(Oh)6] sodium hexahydroxyplatinate(IV) Na[Pt(NH3)Cl3] sodium amminetrichloroplatinate(II) (NH4)2[PtCl4] ammonium tetrachloroplatinate(II) (NH4)2[PtCl6] ammonium hexachloroplatinate(IV) Cs2[Pt(NO2)Cl3] cesium trichloronitroplatinate(II) Cs2[Pt(NO2)2Cl2] cesium dichlorodinitroplatinate(II) Cs2[Pt(NO2)3Cl] cesium chlorotrinitroplatinate(II) 1. SUMMARY 1.1 Identity, physical and chemical properties, analytical methods Platinum (Pt) is a malleable, ductile, silvery-white noble metal with the atomic number 78 and an atomic weight of 195.09. It occurs naturally mainly as the isotopes 194Pt (32.9%), 195Pt (33.8%), and 196Pt (25.3%). In platinum compounds the maximum oxidation state is +6, while the states +2 and +4 are the most stable. The metal does not corrode in air at any temperature, but can be affected by halogens, cyanides, sulfur, molten sulfur compounds, heavy metals, and hydroxides. Digestion with aqua regia or Cl2/HCl (concentrated hydrochloric acid through which chlorine is bubbled) produces hexachloroplatinic acid, H2[PtCl6], an important platinum complex. When heated the ammonium salt of hexachloroplatinic acid produces a grey platinum sponge. A dispersive, black powder ( " platinum black " ) results from reduction in aqueous solution. The chemistry of platinum compounds in aqueous solution is dominated by the complex compounds. Many of the salts, particularly those with halogen- or nitrogen-donor ligands, are water-soluble. Platinum, like the other platinum-group metals, has a pronounced tendency to react with carbon compounds, especially alkenes and alkynes, forming Pt(II) coordination complexes. There are various analytical methods for the determination of platinum. Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and plasma emission spectroscopy provide high selectivity and specificity and are the method of choice for analysing platinum in biotic and environmental samples. With these methods detection limits of a few µg/kg or µg/litre have been obtained for various media. Inductively coupled argon plasma atomic emission spectroscopy is superior to electrothermal AAS because of lower matrix effects and the possibility of simultaneous multi-element analysis. 1.2 Sources of human and environmental exposure The average concentration of platinum in the lithosphere or rocky crust of the earth is estimated to be in the region of 0.001-0.005 mg/kg. Platinum is found either in the metallic form or in a number of mineral forms. Economically important sources exist in the Republic of South Africa and in the USSR. The platinum content of these deposits is 1-500 mg/kg. In Canada, platinum-group metals (platinum, palladium, iridium, osmium, rhodium, ruthenium) are found in copper-nickel sulfide ores at an average concentration of 0.3 mg/kg, but are concentrated to above 50 mg/kg during the refining of copper and nickel. Small amounts are mined in the USA, Ethiopia, the Philippines, and in Colombia. World mine production of platinum-group metals, of which 40-50% is platinum, has steadily increased during the last two decades. In 1971, production was 127 tonnes (51-64 tonnes of platinum). Following the introduction of the automobile exhaust gas catalyst, world mine production of platinum-group metals increased to approximately 270 tonnes (108-135 tonnes of platinum) in 1987. In 1989, total platinum demand in the western world was approximately 97 tonnes. The principal use of platinum derives from its exceptional catalytic properties. Further industrial applications relate to other outstanding properties, particularly resistance to chemical corrosion over a wide temperature range, high melting point, high mechanical strength, and good ductility. Platinum is also used in jewellery and dentistry. Specific complexes of platinum, particularly cis- diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (cisplatin), are used therapeutically.a Data on emissions of platinum to the environment from industrial sources are not available. During the use of platinum- containing catalysts, some platinum may escape into the environment, depending on the type of catalyst. Of the stationary catalysts used in industry, only those used for ammonia oxidation emit significant amounts of platinum. Automobile catalysts are mobile sources of platinum. According to limited data, platinum attrition from the old pellet-type catalyst is between 0.8 and 1.9 µg per km travelled. About 10% of the platinum is water-soluble. a This monograph is specifically concerned with platinum and selected platinum compounds of occupational and/or environmental importance. A detailed discussion of the toxic effects of the anticancer drug cisplatin and its analogues in humans and animals is beyond the selected scope of the Environmental Health Criteria series as these substances are used primarily as therapeutic agents. In addition, their toxic properties are exceptional compared to those of other platinum compounds. With the new generation of monolith-type catalyst, results from engine test stand experiments with a three-way catalyst indicate that total platinum emission is lower by a factor of 100-1000 than in the case of pellet-type catalysts. At simulated speeds of 60, 100, and 140 km/h, total platinum emission was found to be between 3 and 39 ng/m3 in the exhaust gas, corresponding to about 2-39 ng per km travelled. The mean aerodynamic diameter of emitted particles was between 4 and 9 µm in different test runs. There is limited evidence that most of the platinum emitted is in the form of the metal or surface-oxidized particles. 1.3 Environmental transport, distribution, and transformation Platinum-group metals are rare in the environment, in comparison with other elements. In highly industrialized areas, elevated amounts of platinum can be found in river sediments. It is assumed that organic matter, e.g., humic and fulvic acids, binds platinum, aided perhaps by appropriate pH and redox potential conditions in the aquatic environment. In soil, the mobility of platinum depends on the pH, redox potential, chloride concentrations of soil water, and the mode of occurrence of platinum in the primary rock. It is considered that platinum will be mobile only in extremely acid conditions or in soil water with a high chloride content. In in vitro test systems it has been demonstrated that some platinum(IV) complexes, in the presence of platinum(II), can be methylated by bacterial methylcobalamin under abiotic conditions. 1.4 Environmental levels and human exposure The data base concerning environmental concentrations is extremely limited due to the very low levels of platinum in the environment and the associated analytical problems. Concentrations in ambient air samples taken near freeways in the USA before the introduction of the automobile catalyst were below the detection limit of 0.05 pg/m3. Some recent data from Germany indicate that close to roads the platinum air concentrations (particulate samples) range from < 1 pg/m3 to 13 pg/m3. In rural areas the concentrations were of a similar order of magnitude (< 0.6 to 1.8 pg/m3). Ambient air concentrations of platinum close to roads resulting from the introduction of pellet-type automobile catalysts have been estimated on the basis of dispersion models and experimental emission data. Estimated platinum concentrations near and on roads ranged from 0.005 to 9 ng per m3 for total platinum. As the total platinum emission from a monolith-type catalyst is lower, probably by a factor of 100 to 1000, than that of a pellet-type catalyst, the platinum concentrations for this type of catalyst would be in the picogram to femtogram per m3 range. In roadside dust deposited on broad-leaved plants at various sites in California, concentrations of 37-680 µg per kg dry weight were detected. Although the number of samples was limited, the results indicate that automotive catalysts release platinum to the roadside environment. In plant chamber experiments, grass cultures exposed for four weeks to slightly diluted exhaust gas from an engine equipped with a three-way catalyst (simulated speed: 100 km/h) contained no platinum at a detection limit of 2 ng/g dry weight. Investigations of the platinum concentrations in Lake Michigan sediments led to the conclusion that platinum has been deposited there over the past 50 years at a fairly uniform rate. Concentrations in sediment cores of 1 to 20 cm varied only between 0.3 and 0.43 µg/kg dry weight. While no platinum levels have been reported for fresh waters, high concentrations (730 to 31 220 µg/kg dry weight) have been found in the sediments of a highly polluted cut-off channel of the Rhine river, Germany. Samples of limber pines contained platinum levels ranging between non-detectable and 56 µg/kg (ash weight). However, the content of the adjacent soils was in the same range, and no accumulation tendency was indicated by these limited data. In isolated samples of plants from an ultrabasic soil, platinum levels of 100-830 µg/kg (dry weight) were found. Sea-water samples have been found to contain between 37 and 332 pg/litre. In sediment cores from the Eastern Pacific, platinum concentrations varied between 1.1 and 3 µg/kg (dry weight). The highest concentration (21.9 µg per kg) was found in offshore ocean sediments. In marine macroalgae, platinum concentrations of between 0.08 and 0.32 µg/kg dry weight have been found. Blood platinum levels of 0.1 to 2.8 µg/litre have been found in the general population. In sera from occupationally exposed workers, levels of 150 to 440 µg per litre have been reported. The data base for platinum concentrations at the workplace is limited. Due to analytical shortcomings, older data (0.9 to 1700 µg/m3) are probably not reliable. However, from these data it can be assumed that exposure to platinum salts was higher than the occupational exposure limit of 2 µg/m3 currently adopted by most countries. In recent workplace studies, concentrations either below the detection limit of 0.05 µg/m3 or between 0.08 and 0.1 µg/m3 have been measured. 1.5 Kinetics and metabolism Following a single inhalation exposure (48 min) to different chemical forms of platinum (5-8 mg/m3), most of the inhaled 191Pt was rapidly cleared from the body. This was followed by a slower clearance phase during the remaining post-exposure period. Ten days after exposure to 191PtCl4, 191Pt(SO4)2, 191PtO2, and 191Pt metal, whole body retention of 191Pt was approximately 1, 5, 8, and 6%, respectively, of the initial body burden. Most of the 191Pt that was cleared from the lungs by mucociliary action and swallowed was excreted via the faeces (half- time, 24 h). A small fraction of the 191Pt was detected in the urine, indicating that very little was absorbed in the lungs and the gastrointestinal tract. In a comparative study on the fate of 191PtCl4 in rats (25 µCi/animal) following different routes of exposure, retention was highest after intravenous administration, followed by intratracheal exposure. It was lowest after oral administration. Since only a minute amount of the 191PtCl4 given orally was absorbed, most of it passed through the gastrointestinal tract and was excreted via the faeces. After 3 days, less than 1% of the initial dose was detected in the whole body. Following intravenous administration, 191Pt was excreted in almost equal quantities in both faeces and urine. Elimination was slower than after oral dosing. After 3 days whole body retention was about 65%, and after 28 days it was still 14% of the initial dose. For comparison, after these periods about 22% and 8%, respectively, were retained by the body following intratracheal administration. Principal deposition sites are the kidneys, liver, spleen, and adrenals. The high amount of 191Pt found in the kidney shows that once platinum is absorbed most of it accumulates in the kidney and is excreted in the urine. The lower level in the brain suggests that platinum ions cross the blood-brain barrier only to a limited extent. In contrast to the water-soluble salts, the insoluble PtO2 was only taken up in minute amounts even though the salt was administered in the diet at an extremely high level, which resulted in a total platinum consumption of 4308 mg per rat over the 4-week period. For both the simple platinum salts and cisplatin, it has been established that there is an initial rapid clearance followed by a prolonged clearance phase during the remaining post-exposure period, and that there is no evidence for markedly different retention profiles. However, cisplatin is, due to high chloride concentrations suppressing hydration, very stable in extracellular fluids. This explains why it is excreted mainly in the unchanged form. Its excretion, in contrast to that of the simple platinum salts, is primarily via the urine. 1.6 Effects on laboratory mammals and in vitro test systems The acute toxicity of platinum depends mainly on the platinum species. Soluble platinum compounds are much more toxic than insoluble ones. For example, oral toxicity to rats (LD50 values) decreased in the following order: Na2[PtCl6] (25-50 mg/kg) > (NH4)2[PtCl6] (195-200 mg/kg) > PtCl4 (240 mg/kg) > Pt(SO4)2.4H2O (1010 mg/kg) > PtCl2 (> 2000 mg/kg) > PtO2 (> 8000 mg/kg). For the two latter compounds no LD50 could be calculated. In skin testing of albino rabbits, PtO2, PtCl2, K2[PtCl4], [Pt(NO2)2(NH3)2], Pt(C5H7O2)2 and trans-[PtCl2(NH3)2] were graded as non-irritant. (NH4)2[PtCl6], (NH4)2[PtCl4], Na2[PtCl6], Na2[Pt(OH)6], K2[Pt(CN)4], [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2, and cis-[PtCl2(NH3)2] appeared to be irritant, but to various degrees. In eye irritation tests all tested platinum compounds showed irritating effects. Trans-[PtCl2(NH3)2] and (NH4)2[PtCl4] were found to be corrosive. Intense breathing difficulties were observed after the intravenous injection of chloro-platinum complexes into guinea-pigs and rats, presumably due to non-allergic histamine release. This nonspecific histamine release has complicated the interpretation of both animal and human studies with respect to the diagnosis of allergic sensitization. After subcutaneous and intravenous injection of Pt(SO4)2 three times a week for 4 weeks, there was no induction of an allergic state, as measured by skin tests (guinea-pigs and rabbits), passive transfer, and footpad tests (mice). Administration of platinum-egg-albumin complex also failed to sensitize the experimental animals. Attempted sensitization of female hooded Lister rats with the free salt of ammonium tetrachloroplatinate, (NH4)2[PtCl4], applied via the intraperitoneal, intramuscular, intradermal, subcutaneous, intratracheal, and footpad routes, together with Bordetella pertussis adjuvant, was unsuccessful, as shown by the direct skin test, passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) test or a radio-allergosorbent test (RAST). However, with platinum-protein conjugates positive PCA results have been reported. In Cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fasicularis) exposed to sodium hexachloroplatinate, Na2[PtCl6], by nose-only inhalation at a level of 200 µg/m3, 4 h/day, biweekly for 12 weeks, significantly greater pulmonary deficits were observed by comparison with control animals. With exposure to ammonium hexachloroplatinate, (NH4)2[PtCl6], only concomitant exposure to ozone (2000 µg/m3) produced significant skin hypersensitivity and pulmonary hyper-reactivity. In oral studies with male Sprague-Dawley rats, the salts PtCl4 (182 mg/litre drinking-water) and Pt(SO4)2.4H2O (248 mg/litre) did not affect normal weight gain within the observation period of 4 weeks. With a 3-fold increase in platinum concentration, weight gain was reduced by about 20% only during the first week, paralleling a 20% decrease in feed and water consumption. Only limited experimental data are available for platinum effects on reproduction, embryotoxicity, and teratogenicity. Pt(SO4)2 (200 mg Pt/kg) caused reduced offspring weight in Swiss ICR mice from day 8 to 45 post-partum. The main effect of Na2[PtCl6] (20 mg Pt/kg) was a reduced activity level of the offspring of mothers exposed on the 12th day of gestation. Solid platinum wire or foil is considered to be biologically inert and adverse effects following implantation into the uterus of rats and rabbits were probably due to the physical presence of a foreign object. After intravenous administration of 191PtCl4 to pregnant rats (25 µCi/animal) on day 18 of gestation, the placental barrier was crossed to a limited extent. Several platinum compounds have been found to be mutagenic in a number of bacterial systems. In comparative studies cisplatin was several times more mutagenic than other tested platinum salts. In in vitro studies with mammalian cells (CHO-HGPT-system), the relative mutagenic activity of cis-PtCl2(NH3)2], K[PtCl3(NH3)], and [Pt(NH3)3Cl]Cl was 100:9:0.3. The mutagenicity of K2[PtCl4] and trans-[PtCl2(NH3)2] was marginal, whereas [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2 was not mutagenic. No mutagenic activity was observed for the compounds K2[PtCl4] and [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2 in the Drosophila melanogaster sex-linked recessive lethal test, a mouse micronucleus test, and the Chinese hamster bone marrow test. Except for cisplatin, no experimental data are available for the carcinogenicity of platinum and platinum compounds. For cisplatin there is sufficient evidence for carcinogenic effects on animals. However, cisplatin and its analogues are rather exceptional by comparison with other platinum compounds. This is reflected in the unique mechanism for their anti-tumour activity. Intrastrand DNA cross-links, formed only by the cis isomer at a certain position of guanine, are regarded as reasons for this anti-tumour activity. It appears that replication of DNA in cancer cells is impaired, while in normal cells the cisplatin lesions on guanine are repaired before replication. 1.7 Effects on humans Exposure to platinum salts is mainly confined to occupational environments, primarily to platinum metal refineries and catalyst manufacture plants. The compounds mainly responsible for platinum salt hypersensitivitya are hexachloroplatinic acid, H2[PtCl6], and some chlorinated salts such as ammonium hexachloroplatinate, (NH4)2[PtCl6], potassium tetrachloroplatinate, K2[PtCl4], potassium hexachloroplatinate, K2[PtCl6], and sodium tetrachloroplatinate, Na2[PtCl4]. Complexes where there are no halogen ligands coordinated to platinum ( " non-halogenated complexes " ), such as K2[Pt(NO2)4], [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2 and [Pt{(NH2)2CS}4]Cl2, and neutral complexes such as cis- [PtCl2(NH3)2], are not allergenic, since they probably do not react with proteins to form a complete antigen. The signs and symptoms of hypersensitivity include urticaria, contact dermatitis of the skin, and respiratory disorders ranging from sneezing, shortness of breath, and cyanosis to severe asthma. The latency period from the first contact with platinum to the occurrence of the first symptoms varies from a few weeks to several years. Once sensitization is established, symptoms tend to become worse as long as the workers are exposed in the workplace but usually disappear on removal from exposure. However, if long- duration exposure occurs after sensitization, individuals may never become completely free of symptoms. Although no unequivocal exposure concentration-effect relationship can be deduced from the available literature, the risk of developing platinum salt sensitivity seems to be correlated with exposure intensity. Metallic platinum seems to be non-allergenic. With the exception of one single reported case of an alleged contact dermatitis from a " platinum " ring, no allergic reactions have been reported. a The term " platinosis " is no longer used for platinum-salt- related disease, as it implies a chronic fibrosing lung disease such as silicosis. Instead, " platinum salt allergy " , " allergy to platinum compounds containing reactive halogen ligands " , and " platinum salt hypersensitivity " (PSH) have been used, the last being preferred. The clinical manifestations of platinum salt hypersensitivity reflect a true allergic response. The mechanism appears to be a type I (IgE mediated) response. The possibility of IgE antibodies to platinum chloride complexes developing in sensitive people has been assumed on the grounds of in vivo and in vitro tests. It is believed that the platinum salts of low relative molecular mass act as haptens that combine with serum proteins to form the complete antigen. Skin prick tests with dilute concentrations of soluble platinum complexes appear to provide reproducible, reliable, reasonably sensitive, and highly specific biological monitors of allergenicity. The compounds used for routine screening of exposed workers are (NH4)2[PtCl6], Na2[PtCl6], and Na2[PtCl4]. The sensitivity and reliability of the skin prick test has not been achieved by any in vitro test available. In enzyme immunoassays and in radioallergosorbent tests (RAST), IgE antibodies specific to platinum chloride complexes have been found. Although a correlation with the results of prick tests was reported, the applicability of RAST for screening purposes was questioned because of its nonspecificity. Only limited cross-reactivity between platinum and palladium salts has been found in skin testing and RAST. Reactions to the platinum-group metals other than platinum have only been seen in individuals sensitive to platinum salts. Smoking, atopy, and nonspecific pulmonary hyper-reactivity have been associated with platinum salt hypersensitivity and could be predisposing factors. For the general population, there is a lack of data on the actual exposure situation in countries where the automobile catalyst has been introduced. The possible ambient air concentrations, estimated on the basis of a few emission data and dispersion models, are at least a factor of 10 000 lower than the occupational exposure limit value of 1 mg/m3 adopted by some countries for platinum metal as total inhalable dust. Since the emitted platinum is most probably in the metallic form, the sensitizing potential of platinum emissions from automotive catalysts is probably very low. Even if part of the platinum emitted was soluble and potentially allergenic, the safety margin to the occupational exposure limit for soluble platinum salts (2 µg/m3) would be at least 2000. In a preliminary immunological study, extracts of particulate automobile exhaust samples were tested on three human volunteer subjects using a skin prick test. No positive response was elicited. No data are available to assess the carcinogenic risk of platinum or its salts to humans. With regard to cisplatin, evidence for human carcinogenicity is considered inadequate. 1.8 Effects on other organisms in the laboratory and field Simple complexes of platinum have bactericidal effects. The discovery that neutral complexes such as cisplatin selectively inhibit cell division without reducing cell growth of a variety of gram-positive, and especially, of gram-negative bacteria has led to their application in medicine as anti-tumour agents. Growth and yield of the green alga Euglena gracilis were inhibited by the soluble hexachloroplatinic acid (250, 500, and 750 µg/litre) in a laboratory " microcosm " . Cisplatin caused chlorosis and stunted growth in the water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes at a concentration of 2.5 mg/litre. A 3-week exposure to hexachloroplatinic acid, H2[PtCl6], resulted in an LC50 value of 520 µg Pt per litre in the invertebrate Daphnia magna. At concentrations of 14 and 82 µg/litre, reproduction, measured as total number of young, was impaired by 16 and 50%, respectively. After short-term exposure to tetrachloroplatinic acid, H2[PtCl4], in a static bioassay, 24-, 48-, and 96-h LC50 values of 15.5, 5.2, and 2.5 mg Pt/litre, respectively, were found for the coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). General swimming activity and opercular movement were affected at 0.3 mg/litre. Lesions in the gills and the olfactory organ were noted at 0.3 mg/litre or more. Concentrations of 0.03 and 0.1 mg/litre had no effect. There have been studies on the effects of platinum on terrestrial plants, all conducted with soluble platinum chlorides. The growth of beans and tomato plants in sand culture was inhibited by hexachloroplatinic acid at concentrations of 3 x 10-5 to 15 x 10-5 mol/kg (5.9-29.3 mg/kg). Of nine horticultural crops grown in hydroponic solution with platinum tetrachloride, PtCl4 (0.057, 0.57, and 5.7 mg Pt/litre), dry weights were significantly reduced in tomato, bell pepper, and turnip tops, and in radish roots at the highest concentration. At this level, the buds and immature leaves of most species became chlorotic. In some of the species the low levels of PtCl4 had a stimulatory effect on growth. In addition, transpiration was suppressed at the highest platinum concentration, probably due to increased stomatal resistance. Growth stimulation was also observed at low levels of platinum (0.5 mg Pt/litre), administered as potassium tetrachloroplatinate, K2[PtCl4], in seedlings of the South African grass species Setaria verticillata grown in nutrient solution. After two weeks, the length of the longest roots had increased by 65%. At the highest concentration applied, i.e. 2.5 mg Pt/litre, phytotoxic effects were seen in the form of stunted root growth and chlorosis of the leaves. 2. IDENTITY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, ANALYTICAL METHODS 2.1 Identity Platinum is a malleable, ductile, silvery-white noble metal with the atomic number 78 and an atomic weight of 195.09. It occurs naturally mainly as the isotopes 194Pt (32.9%), 195Pt (33.8%), and 196Pt (25.3%). In platinum compounds, the maximum oxidation state is +6, while the states +2 and +4 are the most stable. The most important platinum compounds are listed in Table 1. 2.2 Physical and chemical properties 2.2.1 Platinum metal The metal does not corrode in air at any temperature, but can be affected by halogens, cyanides, sulfur, molten sulfur compounds, heavy metals, and hydroxides. Digestion with aqua regia or Cl2/HCl (concentrated hydrochloric acid through which chlorine gas is bubbled) leads to hexachloroplatinic acid, H2[PtCl6], an important platinum complex. Platinum has a coefficient of expansion almost equal to that of sodium-calcium-silicate glass and the two materials can be used in combination, e.g., in electrodes. Some chemical and physical data on platinum and selected compounds are listed in Table 2. 2.2.2 Platinum compounds The chemistry of platinum compounds in aqueous solution is dominated by the complex compounds. Many of the salts, particularly those with halogen- or nitrogen-donor ligands, are water-soluble. In biochemical processes, cis-trans effects in the quadratic coordination of platinum play an important role. Platinum, like the other platinum-group metals (PGM), has a marked tendency to react with carbon compounds, especially alkenes and alkynes, forming Pt(II) coordination complexes. Table 1. Chemical names, synonyms, and formulae of elemental platinum and platinum compoundsa Chemical name CAS registry numberb Synonyms Formula Element Platinum 7440-06-4 Pt Binary compounds Platinum(II) chloride 10025-65-7 platinous chloride PtCl2 Platinum(IV) chloride 13454-96-1 platinum tetrachloride PtCl4 Platinum(II) oxide n.a. platinous oxide PtO Platinum(IV) oxide 1314-15-4 platinic oxide; platinum dioxide PtO2 Platinum sulfate n.a. - Pt(SO4)2.4H2O Platinum nitratec n.a. - Pt(NO3)2 Coordination complexes Hexachloroplatinic acid(IV) 16941-12-1 chloroplatinic acid; dihydrogen H2[PtCl6] hexachloroplatinate Sodium hexachloroplatinate(IV) 16923-58-3 disodium hexachloroplatinate; Na2[PtCl6] sodium chloroplatinate Potassium hexachloro- 16921-30-5 potassium chloroplatinate; platinic K2[PtCl6] platinate(IV) potassium chloride Potassium tetrachloro- 10025-99-7 platinum potassium chloride; K2[PtCl4] platinate(II) potassium platinochloride Ammonium tetrachloroplatinate(II) 13820-41-2 ammonium platinous chloride; (NH4)2[PtCl4] ammonium chloroplatinite Ammonium hexachloroplatinate(IV) 16919-58-7 ammonium platinic chloride; (NH4)2[PtCl6] ammonium chloroplatinate; " yellow salt " cis-Diamminedichloroplatinum(II) 15663-27-1 cisplatin; cis-platinum; DDP; CDDP; cis-[PtCl2(NH3)2] CPDD; CACP; CPCC; Peyron's chloride trans-Diamminedichloroplatinum(II) 14913-33-8 trans-dichlorodiammineplatinum(II) trans-[Pt(NH3)2Cl2] a From: Windholz (1976); Weast & Astle (1981) b n.a. = not available c Kral & (1977) Table 2. Physical and chemical properties of platinum and selected platinum compoundsa Relative atomic/ Melting Boiling Relative Crystalline Solubilityd Chemical name molecular pointb point density formc Cold Hot Other mass (°C) (°C) (g/cm3) water water solvents Platinum (Pt) 195.09 1772 3827 21.4520 silver-metallic ins ins sol aq. (± 100) cubic cr. regia Platinum(II) chloride 266.00 581b 6.05 olive-green, ins al, eth; (PtCl2) (in Cl2) hexagonal cr. sl sol sol H5Cl, NH4OH Platinum(IV) 336.90 370b 4.303 brown-red cr. v sol v sol sl sol, chloride (PtCl4) (in Cl2) al, NH3 Platinum(IV) oxide (PtO2) 227.03 450 10.2 black powder ins ins ins acid, aq. regia Platinum(II) oxide (PtO) 211.09 550b 14.9 violet-black ins ins sol HCl; cr. ins aq. regia Platinum sulfate 459.27 yellow plates sol dec sol al, (Pt(SO4)2.4H2O) eth, acid Hexachloroplatinic 517.92 60 2.431 red-brown v sol v sol sol al, eth acid(IV) deliquescent (H2[PtCl6].6H2O) cr. Sodium hexachloroplatinate(IV) 453.77 yellow, sol sol al (Na2[PtCl6]) hygroscopic cr. Table 2 (contd). Relative atomic/ Melting Boiling Relative Crystalline Solubilityd Chemical name molecular pointb point density formc Cold Hot Other mass (°C) (°C) (g/cm3) water water solvents Potassium hexachloroplatinate(IV) 486.03 3.50 orange-yellow sl sol sol ins al (K2[PtCl6]) cr. or yellow powder Potassium tetrachloroplatinate(II) 415.26 ruby-red cr. sol (K2[PtCl4]) Ammonium tetrachloroplatinate(II) 373.00 dark ruby-red sol ((NH4)2[PtCl4]) cr. Ammonium hexachloroplatinate(IV) 443.91 3.06 orange-red cr. v sol ins al ((NH4)2[PtCl6]) or yellow powder cis-Diamminedichloroplatinum(II) 300.07 270b orange cr. sl sole (cis-[PtCl2](NH3)2) trans-Diamminedichloroplatinum(II) 300.07 (trans-[PtCl2](NH3)2) a Compiled from: Windholz (1976); Weast & Astle (1981); Neumüller (1987). b dec = decomposes c cr. = crystals d al = alcohol (ethanol); dec = decomposes; eth = ether; ins = insoluble; sl = slightly; sol = soluble; v = very e Tobe & Khokhar (1977) Platinum hexafluoride, PtF6, has the highest oxidation state of the element and is a strong oxidizing agent; the noble gas xenon can be oxidized to XeF2 and oxygen to O2+ (Hoppe, 1965). Hexachloroplatinic acid, H2[PtCl6], is formed by the reaction of platinum metal with aqua regia or Cl2/HCl. When heated, the ammonium salt of this acid produces a grey platinum sponge. A black powder ( " platinum black " ) is produced by reduction in aqueous solution. Depending on the pH value, hydroxides exchange the halogen ligands with OH- in a stepwise manner, leading to PtO2.nH2O after dehydration (n = 1, 2, 3, 4). Further heating gives rise to PtO at 400 °C, which decomposes to platinum and O2 at 560 °C. By heating hexachloroplatinic acid at 240 °C, PtCl2 can be obtained. It has a hexameric structure (Pt6Cl12) in the solid state and is soluble in benzene. This compound forms H2[PtCl4] in HCl. Platinum forms a large number of Pt(II) and Pt(IV) complexes with the formulae: Pt(IV): [PtX6-n(NH3)n]n-2 where n = 0-6; X = halogen ligand Pt(II): [PtX4-n(NH3)n]n-2 where n = 0-4; X = halogen ligand The chemical structures of two of the more important platinum complexes are shown below. 2.3 Conversion factors Platinum 1 ppm = 7.98 mg/m3 1 mg/m3 = 0.13 ppm 2.4 Analytical methods 2.4.1 Sampling Samples of ores, minerals, and preconcentrated technical products can be obtained in a ground or powdered form. Metals and alloys can be collected as chips and shavings. Platinum on alumina pellets or monolithic supports must be comminuted before fusing or digesting (Potter & Lange, 1981). Electronic scrap may contain alloyed copper, nickel or lead. Melting with aluminium leads to a brittle alloy, which can be easily crushed to a powder. Blood samples may be frozen and lyophilized (Pera & Harder, 1977), homogenized with substances like TRITON-X 100® (Priesner et al., 1981), and separated into plasma ultrafiltrate and proteins (Bannister et al., 1978) or, if appropriate, analysed directly without pretreatment. With biological materials, homogeneous sampling is difficult and often requires destructive methods resulting in the loss of all information about the platinum species. Only the total content of platinum and its isotopes can be determined. For the analysis of platinum in urine, the untreated original sample is usually unsuitable. Freeze-drying or a wet ashing procedure with subsequent reduction of volume is necessary for most analytical methods. Other biological and environmental materials being investigated for very low levels of platinum need to be sampled in large amounts, with possible difficulty in homogenisation, digestion, storage, and matrix effects. 2.4.2 Sample pretreatment Determination of total platinum content in some materials requires a digestion step, which is the pre-requisite for enrichment and separation from other elements and organic substances. A modern wet digestion procedure (Knapp, 1985) avoids contact with materials other than quartz in order to reduce adsorption losses. In this way, organic matter is destroyed most effectively and contamination with platinum from other sources is minimized (Würfels et al., 1987). In general, separation involves volatilization, distillation, lyophilization, extraction, coprecipitation, flotation, sorption, and other instrumental methods, such as electro-deposition, chromatographic separations, and thermal pre-treatment in atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) procedures (Knapp, 1984). A selection of extraction and sorption techniques is shown in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. For coprecipitation procedures, details can be found in the reports of Fryer & Kerrich (1978), Stockman (1983), Sighinolfi et al. (1984), Skogerboe et al. (1985), Amosse et al. (1986), and Bankovsky et al. (1987). 2.4.3 Detection and measurement 2.4.3.1 Spectrophotometry Unless the native soluble platinum compounds have an inherent absorption spectrum, they can be treated with inorganic and organic reagents to form coloured, soluble complexes that can be measured by absorption spectrophotometry. Careful separation from other elements is important (see section 2.4.2). The detection limits achieved are in the low mg/kg (ppm) range ( et al., 1977; Brajter & Kozicka, 1979; Mojski & Kalinowski, 1980; Marone et al., 1981; Aneva et al., 1986; Puri et al., 1986). 2.4.3.2 Radiochemical methods Neutron-activation analysis is a very sensitive method for determining submicrogram traces of platinum. It is at least one to several orders of magnitude more sensitive than the best of the spectrophotometric methods. For the determination of platinum a sensitivity of 1 ng absolute was estimated on irradiation of a sample for 1 month at a neutron flux of 10-2cm-2-second, followed by a 2-h decay (NAS, 1977). Radiochemical methods have been applied to the analysis of platinum in various matrices. The detection limits are 1-2 µg/kg in rock samples (Stockman, 1983), 30 µg per kg dry weight in plant material (Valente et al., 1982), 1-3 µg/kg dry weight (0.3 ng absolute) in plant material and animal tissue (Tjioe et al., 1984), and 100 µg/kg in airborne particulate matter (Schutyser et al., 1977). 2.4.3.3 X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy This method permits the highly selective, sensitive, rapid, and non-destructive analysis of platinum. Zolotov et al. (1983) obtained a detection limit of 32 µg Pt per litre in aqueous solutions. A new variant, total-reflection X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, has the advantage of small sample size (5 to 40 µg) with low absolute detection limits (Von Bohlen et al. 1987). Table 3. Extraction procedures for separating platinum Species Matrix Chemical modifier Extraction Elements Reference medium separated Pt(IV) aqueous 6 M HCl isopentanol Al, Ca, Mg, Aneva et al. (1986) solutions Mn, Ni, Cr 4-methyl-2- Cu, Pb pentanone (partially) Pt(IV) aqueous dithio-oxamide tri-butyl Ir(III), Rh(III) Brajter & Kozicka (1979) solutions phosphate Pt(IV) plant- S-(1-decyl)- variety of co-extraction et al. (1977) processing N,N -diphenyl- organic liquids of noble metals solutions isothiouronium bromide Pt(IV) palladium(II) 1,5-diphenylthiocarbazone carbon Pd(II) Marczenko & Kus (1987) chloride tetrachloride Pt(IV) palladium triphenylphosphine dichloroethane Pd, Au Mojski & Kalinowski (1980) metal oxide Pt(IV) synthetic phenanthraquinonemonoxime molten Fe, Cu, Ni, V, Puri et al. (1986) aqueous naphthalene Cr, Al, Au, Ag solutions Ir, Rh, Pd Pt(IV) aqueous potassium butylxanthate carbon - Singh & Garg (1987) solutions tetrachloride Pt(IV) automotive bis-(2-furyl)- trichloromethane V, Mo, W Wiele & Kuchenbecker (1974) catalysts glyoxaldioxime Pt(II), synthetic 1,4,7,10,13,16-hexa- 4-methyl-2- Fe(III) Arpadjan et al. (1987) Pt(IV) aqueous azaoctadecane pentanone solutions Table 3 (contd). Species Matrix Chemical modifier Extraction Elements Reference medium separated Pt(II) urine Diethylammonium- trichloromethane Ca, Zn, Fe(II) Borch et al. (1979) diethyldithiocarbamate, and Mn(II) NaSH Pt(II) aqueous sodium co-extraction Mueller & Lovett (1987) solutions diethyldithiocarbamate of Pd(II), acetonitrile, NaCl Rh(II) Pt(II) plasma sodium - s et al. (1984) ultrafiltrate diethyldithiocarbamate methanol, H2O Pt geological sodium tetraborate, molten lead - Millard (1987) samples KCN Pt geological KCN, KOH Ag, Au co-extraction Le Houillier & De Blois samples of noble metals (1986) Pt blood, hair, HCl, SnCl2 tri-n-octylamine, - Tillery & (1975) faeces, urine xylene Pt geological sodium nickel sulfide - et al., (1971) samples carbonate and sodium tetraborate Table 4. Sorption techniques for preconcentrating platinum Species Matrix Sorption medium Eluent Elements Reference separated Pt sea water Bio-Rad Ag-1-X2 0.1 M HCl, Ir Goldberg et al. (1986); 0.02 M thiourea Hodge et al. (1986) Pt geological Srafion NMRR 0.01 M HCl, high selectivity Kritsotakis & Tobschall (1985) samples 5% thiourea for transition metals Pt aqueous polyethenimine- Co(II), Zn, Cd, Geckeler et al. (1986) solutions methylthiourea In(III), Na suspended in water at pH 1 Pt(II), aqueous Dowex 2X-8 75% NH3 in H2O Au Kahn & Van Loon (1978) Pt(IV) solutions Pt (IV) geological Bio-Rad Ag-50W-X8 0.1 M HCl - Coombes & Chow (1979) samples Pt (IV) geological P-TD 2 M HClO4 Al, Mg, Cu, Grote & Kettrup (1987) samples Fe, Ni, Cr Pt (IV) aqueous Hyphan 1 M HClO4 Na, K, Cs, Mg, Kenawy et al. (1987) solutions Ca, Al Pt (IV) geological Polyorgs digestion HClO4, coextraction Myasoedova et al. (1985) samples, H2SO4, HNO3 noble metals scaps Pt (IV) aqueous (-CH2-S-)n(n approx. 1000) 6 M HCl Co, Ni, Pb, Fe, Zolotov et al. (1983) solutions Zn, Cd 2.4.3.4 Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) ESCA is a technique typically applied in surface analysis involving a few surface atomic layers (1-2 nm). This technique is used for special purposes; for instance, Schlögl et al. (1987) analysed microparticles from automotive exhaust gas catalysts (see section 3.2.1.4). 2.4.3.5 Electrochemical analysis Of the voltametric techniques available for element analysis, polarography, in particular, has been applied for the determination of platinum. et al. (1977a, described a pulse polarography method for the analysis of platinum in ores after fire- assay separation and preconcentration. By measuring the sensitive catalytic polarographic wave generated by the Pt(II)-ethylenediamine complex in alkali solutions a detection limit of 0.025 µg per kg was obtained. A similar technique was applied to the analysis of urine by Vrana et al. (1983), and the detection limit was 10 µg/litre. However, these methods do not allow the direct determination of platinum in complex solutions due to interferences from some heavy metals and precipitation of platinum with other metals in the form of their hydroxides. In this respect, inverse voltametry is superior. Kritsotakis & Tobschall (1985) used the glassy carbon electrode for the determination of platinum traces in synthetic solutions. After preconcentration, 0.04 mg Pt/litre could be determined. This detection limit is sufficient for determining platinum in ores. Using adsorptive cathodic stripping voltametry, Van den Berg & Jacinto (1988) analysed sea-water samples (see section 5.1.2). The detection limit was 7.8 pg Pt/litre. Hoppstock et al. (1989) developed a sensitive volta-metric method for determining platinum in the ng/kg range in biotic and environmental materials. The overall recovery of platinum was reported to be 97% or more. Nygren et al. (1990) described an adsorptive volta-metric method for the measurement of platinum in blood. The detection limit for a 100-µl sample was 0.017 µg per litre. 2.4.3.6 Proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) PIXE requires only small sample sizes (1-10 mg), but is a time- consuming and labour-intensive method. Owing to the substantially lower background, the detection limits are lower by a factor of 1000 than for X-ray fluorescence methods. Methods for analysing water samples, air, and biological tissues have been described by Rickey et al. (1979), Wolfe (1979), and et al. (1981). 2.4.3.7 Liquid chromatography (LC) Marsh et al. (1984) published an adsorption chromatography method in which the analyte was first separated with an ODS Hypersil® column, reacted with NaHSO3, and then detected by UV absorption. The detection limit for cisplatin was 40-60 µg/litre. For the malonate derivates, Van der Vijgh et al. (1984) reported a detection limit of 300-1200 µg/litre for human body fluids. Ebina et al. (1983) analysed Pt(II) in aqueous solutions that were modified with EDTA, ethanoic acid, and maleonitriledithiol. The spectrophotometric detection limit for this partition ion-pair method was 0.2 ng per litre. Using an ion exchange chromatography method, Rocklin (1984) separated Pt(IV) as the hexachlorocomplex on a polar anion exchange column and determined the complex by UV. For samples digested in aqua regia, a detection limit of 30 µg/litre can be obtained without preconcentration and < 1 µg/litre after preconcentration. 2.4.3.8 Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) AAS is a method of high selectivity and specificity and is often the method of choice in analysing platinum in biological and environmental samples. However, there are problems with background radiation deriving from molecules and radicals, especially from unseparated matrix. These interferences can be partly overcome by background compensation through a radiation continuum or by the application of the " Zeeman " effect. To determine platinum in the range of the detection limit, an accurate separation from matrix is essential. For platinum determinations in biological materials, Farago & Parsons (1982) recommended wet digestion in nitric acid and the removal of residual nitrates by hydrochloric acid. Brown & Lee (1986) proposed totally pyrolytic cuvettes for graphite furnace AAS, thus achieving a greater sensitivity for refractory metals. These results were confirmed by Schlemmer & Welz (1986). Although platinum does not form a stable carbide, there was an effect on the wall material of the carbon rod. Electro-graphite tubes coated with pyrolytic graphite were found to be superior to glassy carbon tubes (Welz & Schlemmer, 1987). LeRoy et al. (1977) described a method for the detection of platinum in biological samples that used controlled dehydration and ashing with rapid sample evaporation to detect low levels of platinum. This method did not suffer as much from matrix interference as other AAS graphite furnace methods. The method can be used to detect platinum down to approximately 30 µg/kg (30 ppb). Hodge et al. (1986) determined platinum down to pg per litre levels in marine waters, sediments, and organisms. Sea water was extracted with an anion exchanger (Table 4), eluted, and purified by acid digestion. In a second step, platinum was obtained from the solution with an anion exchanger, stripped again from the bead, and injected. Using a similar technique, Hodge & Stallard (1986) determined platinum in roadside dust. (1976) digested urine and blood samples with nitric and perchloric acids. The samples were diluted after cooling and injected onto carbon rods. The minimum detectable platinum concentration in 5-g samples was 30 µg per litre. McGahan & Tyczkowska (1987) dried and ashed tissues and fluids and diluted the residue with different acids before direct injection. The detection limits were 6 µg per kg or 6 µg/litre. Bannister et al. (1978) separated protein-bound platinum and free circulating compounds by centrifugal ultra-filtration. In the ultrafiltrate, platinum compounds were chelated with ethylenediamine, extracted on a cation exchange paper disc, eluted, and injected. The minimum working concentration was 35 µg/litre of plasma. Alt et al. (1988) described a simple and reliable method which included high-pressure ashing (cf. Knapp, 1984), separation by extraction, and detection by graphite furnace AAS. This method was recommended for analysing biological and other materials down to the µg/kg range. König et al. (1989) determined platinum in the particulate emissions in engine test-stand experiments (see section 3.2.1.4) using a high-pressure digestion without a separation. The authors studied the matrix influences with respect to the concomitant elements and found interferences from A1, Pb, Ca, Zn, P and, most severely, from Si, but under the controlled test conditions no interference effects were observed. In particle-free condensates of automotive exhaust gas, a detection limit of 0.1 ng/ml was achieved by the method of signal addition described by Berndt et al. (1987). 2.4.3.9 Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) The generation of plasmas is a further development of chemical flame methods. They have a wide temperature range, a transparency for the UV spectral lines, and are predominantly insensitive against interfering chemical reactions in the excitation zone that occur with chemical flames. Plasma excitation allows the determination of several elements simultaneously and is, because of minor matrix effects, easy to calibrate over many orders of magnitude. Two methods of generating a plasma are currently used: firstly with direct current (DC) and secondly with a high frequency current (20-80 MHz, inductively coupled plasma, ICP). The ICP method works with an argon plasma and temperatures of 4000-8000 K. Due to the increasing ionization effects, the aerosol feeding is controlled by cooling devices. Boumans & Vrakking (1987) discussed standard values for a 50- MHz ICP, considering effects of source characteristics, noise, and spectral band-width, and obtained a detection limit for the platinum spectral line at 214.42 nm of 7.2 µg/litre. Maessen et al. (1986) studied the influence of chloroform on the platinum signal at 203.65 nm. The detection limits by this method were affected by chloroform and ranged from 30-400 µg/litre. Wemyss & (1978) determined platinum-group metals and gold in ores after three different digestions. The method allowed determination down to 0.13 mg/litre for the 299.8-nm line. Fox (1984) reported interferences from aluminium and magnesium in direct current methods. A buffer of lithium and lanthanum compounds suppressed this effect. Lo et al. (1987) described a simple method for determining platinum in urine with a working range down to 50 µg/litre (50 ppb) under direct application of acidified samples. Electrothermal vaporization (ETV) was used for generating plasma-suitable aerosols by Matusiewicz & (1983). They determined platinum at the mg/litre level in human body fluids directly. A similar procedure was used by Belliveau et al. (1986). 2.4.3.10 Inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) Combining ICP with a mass spectrometer has new advantages in analytical spectroscopy. Elemental ions generated from an aerosol or an electrothermal vaporization unit are separated by a quadrupole and detected as isotopes at low level. The ETV device allows determination down to the pg/ml range. & Houk (1986) used an ion-pair reversed-phase liquid chromatography assay via a continuous flow ultrasonic nebulizer and an ICP torch with a mass spectrometer. In synthetic solutions detection limits of 7 µg/litre (7 ppb) were obtained. Gregoire (1988) compared the results from the ICP-MS-ETV with neutron activation analysis and the ICP-MS solution nebulization method in the ng/ml concentration range and found good agreement. For the analysis of air samples, the NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods (Eller, 1984a) describes a method based on inductively coupled argon plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. The working range is 0.005-2.0 mg/m3 with a 500-litre air sample. However, long sampling periods are required for measuring soluble platinum compounds in the workplace and the method does not distinguish between soluble and insoluble platinum. Similar methods are recommended for the analysis of platinum in blood and tissues (Eller, 1984b) and in urine (Eller, 1984c). The method recommended by the United Kingdom Health and Safety Executive (1985) has a precision better than 8%, measured as a coefficient of variation, for samples of a minimum of 120 litres in the range 1-15 µg Pt/m3. The sensitivity of this method can be improved by 100-1000 fold by using ICP-MS instead of carbon furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. 3. SOURCES OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE 3.1 Natural occurrence The six platinum-group metals, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium, were probably concentrated mainly in the iron-nickel core during the earth's formation. This explains their relatively low presence in the lithosphere (rocky crust) of the earth (Goldschmidt, 1954) where the average concentration of platinum ranges between 0.001 and 0.005 mg/kg (Mason, 1966, Bowen, 1979). Platinum is found both in its metallic form and in a number of minerals. The principal minerals are: sperrylite, PtAs2; cooperite, (Pt,Pd)S; and braggite, (Pt,Pd,Ni)S. Primary deposits are associated with ultrabasic, rather than silicic, rock formations. Economically important sources exist in the Bushveld Igneous Rock Complex in Transvaal, Republic of South Africa, and in the Noril'sk region of Siberia, the Kola Peninsula, and in the Nishnij Tagil region of the Urals, USSR. The platinum content in these deposits is between 1 and 500 mg/kg. In the Sudbury district of Canada, platinum metal is contained in copper-nickel sulfide ores at an average concentration of 0.3 mg/kg but is concentrated to more than 50 mg/kg during the refining of copper and nickel. In the USA, there is a platinum-palladium mine in the Stillwater Complex area, Montana (NAS, 1977; Renner, 1979). Small amounts of platinum are also mined from secondary or placer deposits in the USSR (Ural Mountains), Colombia, USA (Alaska), Ethiopia, and the Philippines. In these deposits platinum is present in the form of metallic alloys of varied composition (NAS, 1977). 3.2 Anthropogenic sources 3.2.1 Production levels and processes 3.2.1.1 World production figures World mine production of platinum-group metals, 40-50% of which is platinum, has steadily increased during the last two decades. In 1971 production was 127 tonnes (51-64 tonnes platinum) and in 1972 it was 132 tonnes (53-66 tonnes platinum) (Butterman, 1975). In 1975, automobile exhaust gas catalysts were introduced in the USA in order to meet the stringent emission limits for carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides set by the Federal Clean Air Act. In Japan, the automobile catalyst was introduced at the same time. As a consequence, world production of PGM increased to 179 tonnes (72-90 tonnes platinum) in 1975, reaching a plateau of between 200 and 203 tonnes per year (80-102 tonnes platinum) during the period 1977-1983 (Loebenstein, 1982, 1988). From 1984 onwards world production increased, apparently in response to the anticipated demand in Western Europe where automobiles are being increasingly fitted with catalytic converters. In 1987, world mine production of PGM amounted to about 270 tonnes (108-135 tonnes platinum) (Loebenstein, 1988). The future demand for platinum depends on improvements in engine technology and emission control, but can be expected to increase further during the coming years. Data on platinum demand are presented in section 3.2.2. 3.2.1.2 Manufacturing processes Most native placer platinum is recovered by dredging and, in less developed areas, by small hand operations. The copper and nickel sulfide ores are mined by large-scale underground methods and concentrated by flotation (Stokinger, 1981). The isolation of pure platinum metal from raw materials involves two principal stages: (i) extraction of a concentrate of precious metals from the ore; (ii) refining the concentrate to separate the platinum-group metals from each other and purify them. These processes require sophisticated chemical technology and include precipitating crystallization and liquid-liquid extraction, often combined with redox reactions to change the oxidation state of the metals. Further processes involve halogenation and reduction reactions at annealing temperatures and special distillations (Renner, 1984). Potential health hazards of exposure to soluble platinum salts are encountered during the later stages of the refining process. After dissolving platinum, palladium, and gold with aqua regia or Cl2/HCl and the subsequent precipitation of gold by addition of ferrous salts, ammonium chloride is added to precipitate ammonium hexachloroplatinate, (NH4)2[PtCl6]. After several purification processes there is a second precipitation of this complex salt, which is then filtered off, dried and finally calcined to yield a spongy mass of platinum metal having purity of 99.95-99.99%. This can be further purified by a cationic exchange technique (NAS, 1977; Stokinger, 1981). Secondary sources in substantial quantities come from the reclamation of scrap and used equipment, particularly industrial catalysts. The recycling of platinum-group metals from automobile catalysts is also increasing (see section 4.3). In principle, the recycling of platinum involves the same wet-chemical and melting processes that are applied to its production from ores (Renner, 1984). 3.2.1.3 Emissions from stationary sources a) Production Data on emissions of platinum during production are not available. Stationary catalysts During the use of platinum-containing catalysts, platinum can escape into the environment in variable amounts, depending on the type of catalyst. Of the stationary catalysts used in industry, only those employed for ammonia oxidation emit major amounts. The loss of platinum from ammonia oxidation gauzes during nitric acid production depends on the operating pressure. An average figure is 0.15 g/tonne of nitric acid (Sperner & Hohmann, 1976). Of this apparent loss, 70-85% is recovered on gold-palladium catchment gauzes, reducing the loss to 0.03 g/tonne (Anon., 1990a). The production of nitric acid in the USA in 1989 was 7 247 837 tonnes (Anon., 1990b). Thus the amount of platinum " lost " in 1989 in the USA is calcu-lated to be 217 kg. This is the maximum amount that could be dissolved or suspended as a colloid in the nitric acid and, thus, could be introduced into the environment if the nitric acid is used in fertilizer production. 3.2.1.4 Emissions from automobile catalysts Automobile catalysts are mobile sources of platinum. Although these catalysts are designed to function for 80 000 km or more (Koberstein, 1984), some loss of platinum can occur due to mechanical and thermal impact. The data on platinum emissions from automobile catalysts are very limited. In the mid 1970s unrealistically high assumptions were made for platinum loss. Brubaker et al. (1975) estimated the loss to be about 12 µg Pt/km, which would mean a total loss of approximately 1 g after 80 000 km. Experimental data show much lower emission rates. Malanchuk et al. (1974) found a platinum concentration of 0.029 µg/m3 in an inhalation chamber that was fed by catalysed engine exhaust. On the basis of the chamber volume, flow rate, and the speed simulated on the engine test stand, an emission rate of 0.39 µg/km was calculated. In another US EPA study, Sigsby (1976) did not detect platinum in particulate exhaust emissions (< 5 µm) at a detection limit of 0.06 µg/g. In exhaust dilution tunnels, platinum was detected in larger particles in the range of 0.034 to 635 µg/g sample; whole or fragmented pellets contained the highest concentrations. Reliable emission data for the pellet-type catalyst come from a study conducted by the General Motors Corporation (Hill & Mayer, 1977), in which emission rates as well as the soluble fraction were determined by a radio-metric method. Platinum emission was found to be 0.8 to 1.2 µg per km travelled in low-speed runs (starts and stops, maximum speed 48 km/h) and 1.9 µg per kilometre travelled in high-speed runs (96 km/h). It should be noted that these results relate to the first 250 km of catalyst life. Lower loss rates would be expected with increasing age of the catalyst. Of the particles collected, 80% had particle diameters greater than 125 µm. Experiments with an engine test stand using laboratory prepared catalysts indicated that about 10% of the platinum emitted is water soluble. However, the statistical significance of these results was not reported. Even so, these emission data provide the best basis for the estimation of expected ambient air concentrations resulting from the introduction of pellet catalysts (see section 5.1.1). However, this type of automobile catalyst is no longer used on new cars in the USA, and has never been used in Europe where only monolithic catalysts are on the market. Emission data are available concerning the new generation monolith-type catalyst. In Germany the Fraunhofer Institute of Toxicology and Aerosol Research (König et al., 1989, König & Hertel, 1990) has conducted engine test stand experiments as part of a programme of the Ministry of Research and Technology for assessing the relative risk of this new man-made environmental source (GSF, 1990). First results indicated that platinum emission is lower by a factor of 100 than in the case of pelleted catalysts: at a simulated speed of 100 km/h, total loss from a three-way catalyst was measured, using the AAS method, to be on average about 17 ng/m3 in the exhaust gas (König et al., 1989). In further experiments this value was validated (König & Hertel, 1990): the mean platinum emission from two catalysts was found to be 12 and 8 ng/m3, respectively. As shown in Table 5, platinum emission seems to be temperature dependent. At an exhaust gas temperature of 690° C and a simulated speed of 140 km/h, about 35-39 ng/m3 was found in the exhaust gas. The mean aerodynamic diameter of the particles collected after the muffler (silencer) on a Berner impactor varied between 4 and 9 µm. Preliminary results indicated that approximately 10% of the total platinum penetrated a depth-type filter to be trapped in the condensate (König et al., 1989), but this single measurement could not be confirmed by subsequent determinations where the platinum content in the condensate was below the detection limit (0.1 ng/ml) (König & Hertel, 1990). Schlögl et al. (1987) analysed microparticles emitted from automobile exhaust and collected on several conducting surfaces. In experiments with diesel and gasoline engines equipped with catalysts, they found detectable traces of platinum. In diesel engine exhaust it was presumed that most platinum would be in the oxidation state 0 (platinum black). A small part was found to be Pt(IV), probably in the oxide form. The platinum emission from gasoline engines showed a photoemission spectrum indicating that platinum is probably emitted mostly in the form of surface oxidized particles. Table 5. Mean platinum emissions from two monolith catalysts (1 and 2) at different engine test stand runsa Platinum emission Simulated Number Exhaust gas Exhaust ng per km Mean aerodynamic speed of samples temperature gas travelledb diameter (µm) (km/h) (° C) (ng/m3) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) 60 18 480 3 4 2 3 6 9 100 39 600 12 8 10 8 4 6 140 18 690 39 35 39 35 6 8 a Adapted from König et al. (in press) b Calculated assuming that on average 10 m3 exhaust gas is emitted per litre gasoline and a gasoline kilometrage of 7, 8, and 10 litres per 100 km travelled, respectively. 3.2.2 Uses The principal use of platinum derives from its special catalytic properties. Further applications in industry are related to other outstanding properties, particularly resistance to chemical corrosion over a wide temperature range, high melting point, high mechanical strength, and good ductility. Platinum has long been known to have excellent catalytic properties. Before the introduction of catalytic converters in automobiles, most of the platinum was used as a catalyst in hydrogenation, dehydrogenation, isomerization, cyclization, dehydration, dehalogenation, and oxidation reactions. One of its major industrial uses is for naphtha-reforming to upgrade catalytically the octane rating of gasoline. Other catalytic uses are in ammonia oxidation to produce nitric acid, hydrogen cyanide manufacture, the reduction of nitro groups and, in the automobile catalyst application, the conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide to nitrogen and water (NAS, 1977; Stokinger, 1981). As shown in Table 6, in the USA in 1973, before the introduction of the automobile catalyst, most of the platinum was used for catalytic purposes in the chemical and petroleum industry. In 1987 the use pattern had completely changed and 71% of the platinum sold was used by the automobile industry. In 1987, a typical USA car catalyst contained about 1.77 g of platinum and 10.6 million vehicles with catalysts were produced (Loebenstein, 1988); this accounts for the 18.8 tonnes shown in Table 6. Table 6. Platinum sales to various types of industry in the USA before and after the introduction of automotive catalytic convertersa Industry 1973 1987 kg/year % of total kg/year % of total Automobile - - 18 817 71.3 Chemical 7434 36.3 1920 7.5 Petroleum 3844 18.8 739 2.8 Dental and medical 868 4.2 479 1.9 Electrical 3642 17.9 1821 7.1 Glass 2255 11.0 285 1.1 Jewellery and decorative 697 3.4 177 0.7 Miscellaneous 1732 8.5 1430 5.6 Total 20 472 100 25 668 100 a From: Butterman (1975); Loebenstein (1988) Tables 7 and 8 show the platinum demand by application in the Western world, also reflecting the increased demand during recent years. In 1989, total demand was 90 tonnes. Platinum oxidation catalyst technology, developed to reduce automobile exhaust emissions, has been extended to other environmental control applications such as the reduction of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions from large gas turbines (Jung & Becker, 1987) and the transformation of hydrogen molecules into active hydrogen atoms to reduce chlorohydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene to ethane in water (Wang & Tan, 1987). Table 7. Western-world platinum demand (kg/year) by applicationa 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 Automobile catalyst gross 19 278 18 144 18 569 18 285 23 814 27 783 32 318 35 579 37 563 41 107 recovery 0 0 283 850 1276 1984 2551 3260 4536 4961 Chemical 7371 7087 7371 6946 7371 6379 5528 5528 4536 4536 Electrical 5953 5245 4819 4961 5386 5670 5103 5103 5245 5528 Glass 3969 2835 2410 2977 3969 3969 2551 3402 3685 3969 Investment small 0 0 1276 2551 4819 7371 12 757 6095 9355 3685 large 4536 5528 3260 1843 4252 4819 3544 7796 8505 850 Jewellery 15 876 21 404 21 687 20 270 21 971 22 963 24 097 28 066 33 452 36 996 Petroleum 3685 3969 1843 567 425 425 567 1559 1417 2126 Other 5386 4678 4819 4252 3827 2835 3685 3402 3402 3260 Total 66 054 68 889 65 771 61 802 74 559 80 230 80 511 93 270 102 624 97 096 a From Matthey (1990) Table 8. Regional platinum demand (kg/year) by applicationa 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 Japan Automobile catalyst grossb 5953 5386 4819 4819 4819 5953 7229 8788 9355 10 064 recoveryc 0 0 0 0 0 0 142 425 709 709 Chemical 283 283 283 283 425 425 425 425 425 425 Electrical 425 425 567 567 50 1134 1276 1276 1276 1417 Glass 1134 1417 1276 1701 2126 1701 850 1276 1276 1134 Investment small 0 0 0 142 425 992 992 1701 3260 992 large 4536 5528 3260 1843 4252 4819 3544 7796 8505 850 Jewellery 12 474 17 718 17 577 15 876 17 718 19 136 20 979 25 515 30 050 32 602 Petroleum 425 425 425 425 567 425 0 0 0 0 Other 1417 1417 1559 1276 1134 850 567 425 425 425 Total 26 647 32 599 29 766 26 932 32 316 35 435 28 632 46 777 53 863 47 200 North America Automobile catalyst gross 12 474 12 190 12 899 12 757 18 002 19 845 21 120 19 561 19 561 20 412 recovery 0 0 0 850 1276 1984 2410 2835 3827 4252 Chemical 3260 1417 2268 2835 2835 2126 1843 1559 1559 1559 Electrical 4111 1984 1984 2551 2693 2268 1843 1843 1843 2126 Glass 1417 567 283 425 850 1134 709 709 709 850 Investment 0 0 1134 1134 850 3685 8505 2410 2410 1559 Jewellery 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 567 Petroleum 3969 1559 567 425 425 283 283 425 425 1134 Other 2126 1701 567 709 992 850 1417 1417 1417 1417 Total 27 782 19 843 20 127 20 411 25 796 28 632 33 735 25 514 24 522 25 372 Table 8 (contd). 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 Rest of Western world, including Europe Automobile catalyst gross 850 567 567 709 992 1984 3969 7229 8647 10 631 recovery 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Chemical 3827 5386 4819 3827 4111 3827 3260 3544 2551 2551 Electrical 1417 2835 2268 1843 1843 2268 1984 1984 1984 1984 Glass 1417 850 850 850 992 1134 992 1417 1701 1984 Investment 0 0 142 1276 3544 2693 3260 1984 3685 1134 Jewellery 2977 3260 3685 3969 3827 3402 2693 2126 2977 3827 Petroleum 709 1984 850 283 567 283 283 1134 992 992 Other 1843 1559 2693 2268 1701 1134 1701 1559 1559 1417 Total 11 622 16 441 15 874 14 459 16 443 16 159 18 142 20 977 24 096 24 520 a From: Matthey (1990) b Gross automobile catalyst demand is purchase of platinum by the auto industry for the manufacture of automobile catalysts. c Automobile catalyst recovery is platinum recovered from catalytic converters removed from scrapped automobiles. Platinum and platinum-rhodium alloys have many high-temperature uses. Thermo-electrical applications arise from the simple and stable relationship between resistance and temperature that platinum exhibits over a wide temperature range. This explains its use in platinum resistance thermometers, thermocouples, and strain gauges. The high melting point of platinum and its resistance to oxidation and many chemicals has led to its use in vessels in the glass-making industry and in the fabrication of spinning jets and bushings for the production of viscose rayon and fibreglass, respectively. It is also used for laboratory ware, such as crucibles, combustion boats, and the tips of tongs. Ships' hulls, propellers, and rudders are protected against corrosion by " cathodic protection " using platinum- clad anodes (NAS, 1977). Platinum and/or its alloys have been used in electric contacts for relays and switchgears for a variety of reasons, including hardness and good conductivity. Many printed circuits are made using preparations that contain platinum. Electrochemical platinum electrodes have been used in preparative chemistry, since they support many oxidative reactions although they resist oxidation themselves (NAS, 1977). A major use of platinum is in jewellery for making rings and settings. Platinum is also used to produce a silvery lustre on ceramic glazes (NAS, 1977). In dentistry, platinum is used in gold-platinum-palladium alloys to raise the melting-point range and increase the strength. However, this use is decreasing, since platinum is being replaced by other materials including palladium (Anusavice, 1985; NAS, 1977). Platinum has an important role in neurological prostheses, i.e. surgically implanted microelectronic devices, such as implants for treating incontinence, or for recovering some use of paralysed limbs following spinal accidents (son, 1987). Platinum-iridium electrodes are used for long-term electrode implantation for recording electrical activity and for stimulation in human tissues and organs, e.g., pacemakers (Theopold et al., 1981). All these applications use platinum as a pure metal or in the form of alloys, but soluble platinum salts are also used in the manufacture of these products; e.g., hexachloroplatinic acid may be used in platinizing alumina or charcoal in catalyst production. A number of salts can be used in the electrodeposition of platinum, e.g., sodium hexahydroxyplatinate(IV), Na2[Pt(OH)6].2H2O, diamminedinitroplatinum(II), [Pt(NO2)2(NH3)2], hydrogen dinitrosulfatoplatinate(II), H2[Pt(NO2)2SO4], and tetraammineplatinum(II) compounds such as the hydrogenphosphate, sulfamate, citrate, and tartrate (Baumgärtner & Raub, 1988; Skinner, 1989). Complexes of platinum, particularly cis- diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (cisplatin) (see footnote in section 1.2), have been used to treat cancer. In patients with testicular cancers, remissions rates of more than 90% have been achieved (Lippert & Beck, 1983). 4. ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION, AND TRANSFORMATION 4.1 Transport and distribution between media By comparison with other elements, platinum-group metals are distributed sparsely in the environment. Since platinum is so valuable, great care is taken to avoid significant loss during mining and refining processes, and during use and disposal of used platinum-containing objects. Up to 1984, about 1050 tonnes of platinum had been refined. Most of this has been used in the form of the metal and platinum oxides, which are practically insoluble in water, resistant to most chemical reactions in the biosphere, and do not volatilize into air (Renner, 1984). Part of the platinum released into the air from automobile emissions (section 5) is deposited close to the roads and could be washed off by rain into rivers and coastal marine waters (Hodge & Stallard, 1986). However, only small amounts of platinum have been detected in environmental samples (see sections 5.1.2. and 5.1.3.). Large amounts of metals including platinum can be transported in rivers draining major industrialized regions, leading to elevated platinum concentrations in sediments (section 5.1.3). Platinum forms soluble complexes with ammonia, cyanide, amines, olefins, organic sulfides, and tertiary arsines. However, the level of these ligands in natural waters is insufficient to make platinum mobile (Fuchs & Rose, 1974). Organic matter has a role as a vehicle for the transport of platinum and for bringing about its precipitation or concentration. There is a good correlation between high contents of platinum and organic carbon in polluted stream sediments of the Ginsheimer- Altrhine river, near Mainz, Germany (see section 5.1.2), and it is assumed that organic matter such as humic and fulvic acids binds platinum, aided perhaps by appropriate pH and redox potential conditions in the aquatic environment (Dissanayake, 1983). Detailed information about the geochemical behaviour of platinum-group metals is available from the platinum mining area of Stillwater, Montana, USA (Fuchs & Rose, 1974). The mobility of platinum depends on pH, the redox potential, chloride concentrations in soil water, and the mode of occurrence of platinum in the primary rock. The relation between redox potentials and pH conditions indicates that platinum behaviour also depends on the kind of ore it is associated with. If bound in chromite, it has essentially no mobility in weathering because of the resistant character of chromite. On the other hand, platinum in the form of trace mineral inclusions in sulfides is readily released by oxidation during weathering. Calculated relations between pH and redox potential indicate that increased chloride concentrations in soil water will promote mobility. Thus, platinum will be mobile only in extremely acid waters or those with a high chloride level (Fuchs & Rose, 1974). In twigs from four limber pines (Pinus flexilis) in the platinum mining area of Stillwater, the platinum concentrations were the same as in the adjacent soil. It was concluded that limber pine does not concentrate platinum, probably due to the limited mobility of platinum (Fuchs & Rose, 1974). However, high concentrations of platinum were found in the roots of nine horticultural crops (cauliflower, radish, snapbean, sweet corn, pea, tomato, bell pepper, broccoli, and turnip) grown in Hoagland's hydroponic culture solution containing platinum tetrachloride concentrations of 0.057, 0.57, or 5.7 mg/litre (Pallas & , 1978; see section 7.3). For example, at the highest concentration, cauliflower and tomato roots contained 1425 and 1710 mg Pt/kg, respectively. Only pepper, cauliflower, and radish accumulated platinum in their tops, but to a very limited extent. From the data of Pallas & (1978) it is not clear whether they differentiated between contamination of the root surface and true uptake of platinum. However, these results indicate that platinum can enter food crops but the bioavailability essentially depends on the solubility of the platinum species. It should be noted that the salt (PtCl4) used by Pallas & (1978) is soluble in water. In the context of a German government programme (see section 3.2.1.4), Rosner et al. (1991) conducted engine test stand experiments with a three-way-catalyst-equipped engine (monolith-type catalyst) to determine platinum uptake by plants. Grass cultures (Lolium multiflorum) were placed in continuously stirred tank reactors and exposed to slightly diluted (1:10/20) exhaust gas for 4 weeks (8 h/day, 5 days/week). Using atomic absorption spectrometry for the measurement of platinum emissions (see section 2.4.3.8, König & Hertel, 1990), no platinum could be detected in the shoots at a detection limit of 2 ng/g dry weight. 4.2 Biotransformation By analogy, platinum compounds may undergo biotransformation comparable to processes described for other metals. The biomethylation of platinum compounds, i.e. [Pt(IV)Cl6]2-, [Pt(IV)(CN)4Cl2]2-, [Pt(IV)(CN)5Cl]2-, and [Pt(IV)(SO4)2], has been established only in in vitro test systems (, 1976; Wood et al., 1978; Fanchiang et al., 1979; et al., 1979; Fanchiang, 1985). Methylcobalamin (MeB12) reacts with Pt(II) and Pt(IV) complexes to give a methylated platinum compound. Agnes et al. (1971) reported that this reaction requires the presence of platinum in both oxidation states. Spectrophotometric measurements showed the consumption of one mole of [Pt(IV)Cl6]2- per mole of MeB12, [Pt(II)Cl4]2- being required only in catalytic quantities. Aquocobalamin (aquo-B12) and methylplatinum were shown to be the products of the reaction ( & Hanna, 1977). From these laboratory data produced under abiotic conditions it is not, however, possible to conclude that microorganisms in the environment are able to biomethylate platinum complexes. 4.3 Ultimate fate following use The value of platinum-group metals has greatly increased and methods for their recovery from spent catalysts are of economic importance. Platinum metal has been successfully recycled from used chemical and petroleum catalysts for many years, but many companies are still trying to find a successful formula for retrieving it from automobile catalysts. The latter accounts for more than 30% of the total platinum-group metal consumption in the USA. The US Office of Technology calculated that if 50-60% of catalytic converters were recovered for their metal value, about 7717 kg platinum per year could be reclaimed in 1990. However, currently only between 25 to 40% of the used converters are being reclaimed (Agoos, 1986). According to another estimate, 5443 kg of platinum was recovered in 1989 from automobile catalysts, of which 4666 kg was recovered in the USA ( Matthey, 1990). In contrast to automobile catalysts, almost 100% of spent reforming and gauze catalysts are collected for their metal value. This is based on their much higher platinum metal content (Agoos, 1986). 5. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE 5.1 Environmental levels 5.1.1 Ambient air Few measurements of platinum ambient air concentrations have been reported. Results obtained before the introduction of cars with catalytic converters can serve as a baseline. Air samples taken near freeways in California, USA, and analysed using atomic absorption spectrometry were below the detection limit of 0.05 pg/m3 ( et al., 1975; 1976). No platinum could be detected in two air samples collected by Ito & Kidani (1982) in an industrial area of Nagoya, Japan, in 1981. Close to city roads in furt, Langenbrügge, Germany, the platinum air concentrations (particulate samples) were measured in 1989 to be between < 1 and 13 pg/m3. In rural areas the concentrations were < 0.6-1.8 pg/m3 (Tölg & Alt, 1990). At the time of these measurements, few German cars were equipped with catalysts. Thus, these levels virtually reflect background levels. Rosner & Hertel (1986) estimated ambient air concentrations for different scenarios, based on dispersion models used by US EPA (Ingalls & Garbe, 1982) and on the emission data of Hill & Mayer (1977) (see section 3.2.1.4). As shown in Table 9, total platinum concentrations near and on roads could range from 0.005 to 9 ng/m3. Estimates for parking and personal garages were also made, based on an assumed emission rate of 1 µg/min for total platinum, but this is definitely an overestimate. It can be assumed that the emission of platinum depends on the exhaust gas temperature. At idling or very low speed conditions, emissions are expected to be negligible (see section 3.2.1.4). As described in section 3.2.1.4, emission data indicate that the total platinum emission of a monolith-type catalyst is probably lower by a factor of 100 than that of a pellet-type catalyst. Assuming an average emission rate of approximately 20 ng/km (see section 3.2.1.4) and applying the same dispersion models, the theoretical ambient air concentrations would be lowered to the picogram to femtogram per m3 range (see Table 9). Table 9. Estimated ambient air concentrations of total platinum at various exposure conditions, based on an emission rate of 2 µg/km from the pelleted catalyst and 0.02 µg/km from the monolithic three-way catalyst Exposure situationa Ambient Pt concentration(ng/m3) Pelleted Monolithic catalyst catalyst Roadway tunnel Typical 4 0.04 Severe 9 0.09 Street canyon (sidewalk receptor) Typical a) 800 vehicles per h 0.1 0.001 Typical 1600 vehicles per h 0.3 0.003 Severe a) 1200 vehicles per h 0.5 0.005 Severe 2400 vehicles per h 0.9 0.009 On expressway Typical 0.7 0.007 Severe 1.6 0.016 Beside expressway (short-term) Severe 1 m 1.3 0.013 10 m 1.1 0.011 100 m 0.3 0.003 1000 m 0.04 0.0004 Beside expressway (annual) Severe 1 m 0.2 0.002 10 m 0.15 0.0015 100 m 0.04 0.0004 1000 m 0.005 0.00005 a Calculations based on dispersion models used by US EPA; " Typical/severe " depends on wind conditions and road width (Ingalls & Garbe, 1982) Hodge & Stallard (1986) analysed roadside dust deposited in San Diego, California, USA. At the edge of a major freeway (154 000 vehicles/day), dust samples contained the highest concentration (680 µg Pt/kg dry weight; 680 ppb). At a distance of about 34 m, the platinum content of 100 µg/kg was about 7 times lower. At the edge of another heavily used freeway (96 000 vehicles/day) platinum content was 250 µg/kg, while with less heavy traffic (14 000 vehicles/day) 260 and 300 µg/kg were found in two dust samples. The lowest concentrations, 37 and 60 µg/kg, were found in samples collected from plants growing in the yards of houses located on highly used road. The platinum concentration was not correlated with the lead concentration. However, the samples with the highest platinum concentrations also had the highest lead values. Although the number of samples was limited, the results indicate that automobile catalysts release platinum. However, it should be noted that platinum emissions from pelleted catalysts were probably responsible for the concentrations reported and that the use of monolith catalysts should result in much lower platinum concentrations in the roadside environment. 5.1.2 Water and sediments In a study to determine baseline levels of platinum, et al. (1976) analysed tap water samples collected in Lancaster and Los Angeles, California, USA. No platinum was found at a detection limit of 0.08 µg/litre. In tap water (probably only one sample) from Liverpool, United Kingdom, a platinum content of 0.06 µg/litre was determined by adsorptive cathodic stripping voltametry (Van den Berg & Jacinto, 1988). Investigations of platinum concentrations in Lake Michigan sediments led to the conclusion that platinum has been deposited over the past 50 years at a constant rate. Concentrations at sediment depths of 1-20 cm varied between 0.3 and 0.43 µg/kg dry weight (Goldberg et al., 1981). In comparison, lead concentrations have markedly increased in the sediment due to increased emissions from industry and motor traffic. Lee (1983) noted a rapid increase in the palladium contents of the sediments from the Palace Moat, Tokyo, Japan, between 1948 and 1973 and attributed it to the introduction of car catalysts. However, this is not conclusive as the palladium content in the sediment had already begun to increase in 1964-1965, before the introduction of the catalytic converter, and even in 1973 only a few cars were equipped with converters. Dissanayake et al. (1984) determined platinum concentrations in the sediments of a cut-off channel of the Rhine river near Mainz, Germany. Sediment samples from this highly polluted river were sieved and the < 2 µm fraction was analysed by flameless AAS. The platinum concentrations in 12 samples collected at different sites varied over a wide range. In four samples no platinum was detected, while eight samples contained between 730 and 31 220 µg/kg (dry weight). This is higher by a factor of up to 15 000 compared to unpolluted average North Sea sediments. The high variation was attributed to differences in pH and redox conditions. The extremely high concentrations appeared at the interface between an extremely reducing and an oxidizing aquatic environment that provided, together with a pH of 6.6-7.8, optimum conditions for the formation of metal-organic complexes. The sample containing 31 220 µg Pt/kg also contained the highest concentration of palladium (4000 µg/kg). The gold content (100-400 µg/kg) had a relatively uniform distribution, but was also indicative of a high state of pollution. Using a more sensitive graphite furnace AAS method, Goldberg et al. (1986) detected very low platinum concentrations in sea water. Samples of filtered water (0.45-µm filter) from the open Eastern Pacific Ocean showed an increase in platinum concentration with depth from surface values of around 100 to a value of 250 pg/litre at 4500 m. Similar concentration profiles were obtained in unfiltered sea water taken from the California Borderline region (Hodge et al., 1985). Sea-water samples analysed by Van den Berg & Jacinto (1988) were also within this concentration range. A deep-sea and a shallow-water sample from the Indian Ocean contained 154 and 37 pg/litre, respectively, whereas sea water of coastal origin contained 332 pg/litre. It should be noted that these were only single samples. In sediment cores from the Eastern Pacific taken to a depth of 6-22 cm in carbonate and siliceous ooze, platinum concentrations varied between 1.1 and 3 µg/kg (dry weight basis). Lower concentrations (0.3 µg/kg) were reported in the Santa Barbara Basin (Hodge et al., 1985). The highest concentration (21.9 µg/kg) was found in pelagic ocean sediments (Hodge et al., 1986). In several investigations, the platinum content of seamount ferromanganese nodules or crusts was studied. In deep-sea nodules from the Northwest Pacific nodule belt, platinum concentrations from < 5 to 145 µg/kg were found (Agiorgitis & Gundlach, 1978). Platinum values in ferromanganese seamount crusts from the Central Pacific were much higher and varied between 140 µg/kg at 3780 m and a maximum of 880 µg/kg at a depth of 1120 m (Halbach et al., 1984). Both platinum and nickel concentrations correlated positively with manganese content and led to the conclusion that platinum and nickel are incorporated in the manganese oxide fraction. It was suggested that the high platinum concentration in the crusts is derived directly from sea water by a process of specific adsorption onto colloidal particles of hydrous manganese oxide, which has a negative surface charge in sea water. In a further investigation, platinum concentrations in ferromanganese minerals from various localities were found to vary between 6 and 940 µg/kg (Goldberg et al., 1986). In manganese nodules obtained at depths of between 1700 and 4200 m in the Pacific Ocean, platinum concentrations varied between 138 and 940 µg/kg (Hodge et al., 1986). 5.1.3 Soil Few measurements of platinum in soil have been reported. In the baseline study of et al. (1976), all surface soil samples collected near freeways in California, USA, and in a mining area in Sudbury, Canada, were below the detection limit of 0.8 µg/kg. In the USA, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS, 1977) estimated the accumulation of platinum in roadside environments on the basis of an emission rate of 1.9 µg per km from cars equipped with catalytic converters and a frequency of 5000 cars per day. Assuming that all emitted platinum was localized near the freeway in the topsoil (uniformly distributed about 30 cm deep over a width of about 90 m and a length of 1.6 km, with a soil density of 1.5 g/cm3), a platinum concentration after 10 years of 8 µg/kg could be expected. 5.1.4 Food Hamilton & Minski (1972/1973) estimated a total daily platinum intake of less than 1 µg/day, based on an analysis of a United Kingdom total-diet sample and 1963 United Kingdom consumption and population figures. No data were given on the platinum content of the foods analysed. 5.1.5 Terrestrial and aquatic organisms Fuchs & Rose (1974) analysed samples of twigs from four limber pines (Pinus flexilis) in the Stillwater mining area, Montana, USA. Three samples contained between 12 and 56 µg Pt/kg (ash weight), while one contained platinum at a level below the detection limit. The content of the adjacent soils was also in this range, so that no evidence for accumulation could be derived from these limited data (see also section 4.1). Using neutron activation analysis (section 2.4.3.2) Valente et al. (1982) measured the following platinum concentrations in isolated samples of plants from an ultrabasic soil: Fragaria virginiana, 830 µg/kg (dry weight); Prunella vulgaris, 440 µg/kg; Aspidotis densa, 100 µg/kg. In marine macroalgae the following platinum concentrations (on a dry weight basis) were found near La Jolla, California, USA (Hodge et al., 1986): red algae Prionites australis and Opuntiella californica, 0.19 and 0.08 µg/kg, respectively; brown algae Macrocystis pyrifera and Pterygophora californica, 0.22 and 0.32 µg/kg, respectively. 5.2 General population exposure Two studies were conducted in the USA to establish baseline levels of platinum in the tissues and body fluids of the general population prior to the introduction of automobile catalysts. et al. (1975, 1976) analysed autopsy tissue samples from 10 people, 12 to 75 years old, who died from a variety of causes in Southern California. All samples taken from liver, kidney, spleen, lung, muscle, and fat were below the detection limits (0.2-2.6 µg/kg wet weight). Samples collected from 282 people from Southern California living near a heavily used urban freeway (Los Angeles) or in a desert area near Lancaster also showed platinum concentrations below the detection limits (blood, < 31 µg/litre; urine, < 0.6 µg/litre; hair, < 50 µg per kg; faeces, < 2 µg/kg). Only in pooled blood samples were detectable concentrations measured, i.e. 0.49 µg/litre in the Los Angeles group and 1.8 µg/litre in the Lancaster group. In a second study, tissue samples were taken from autopsied individuals from Southern California (95 people) and New York (2 people), who had not been knowingly exposed to platinum either occupationally or by medical treatment (Duffield et al., 1976). In 42 individuals no platinum was detected. Of the 1313 samples collected, only 62, i.e. 5%, had detectable concentrations of platinum ranging from 0.003 to 1.46 mg/kg wet weight (mean 0.16 mg/kg, median 0.067 mg/kg). Table 10 shows the frequency of platinum detection in the various tissue samples. The frequency of occurrence was taken as a measure of the distribution of platinum among various body organs. Platinum was frequently found in subcutaneous fat. This is surprising, as most platinum compounds are regarded as lipid- insoluble. Other target sites were kidney, pancreas, and liver. However, the analytical accuracy has been questioned and contamination of the samples suspected (NAS, 1977), because the baseline levels found by et al. (1976) were at least one order of magnitude lower. The problem of questionable analytical reliability reflects the difficulties in interpreting data on trace levels of platinum in the environment and in human tissues and body fluids. New data have been provided by Nygren et al. (1990). Using absorptive voltametry (see section 2.4.3.5), the background levels of platinum in human blood were found to be in the range of 0.1-2.8 µg/litre (median 0.6 µg per litre). These results were verified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry using gold as an internal standard. 5.3 Occupational exposure during manufacture, formulation, or use Occupational exposure occurs during the mining and processing of platinum. However, the most common current occupational exposure to soluble platinum compounds is through inhalation in platinum refining and catalyst manufacture. Table 10. Distribution of tissue samples with detectable platinuma Number of Samples with detectable samples platinum analysed No. % Subcutaneous fat 74 10 14 Kidney 91 11 12 Pancreas 84 10 12 Liver 90 10 11 Brain 9 1 11 Gonad 53 5 9 Adrenal 60 3 5 Muscle (psoas) 97 4 4 Aorta (descending) 92 3 3 Heart (left ventricle) 82 2 2 Spleen 52 1 2 Prostate/uterus 63 1 2 Thyroid 73 1 1 Lung 95 0 0 Vertebra (lumbar) 94 0 0 Rib (fifth) 97 0 0 Femur 57 0 0 Clavicle 30 0 0 Hair, scalp 9 0 0 Hair, pubic 1 0 0 1303 62 5 a From: Duffield et al. (1976) Many countries have set occupational exposure limits. For example, in the USA, the time-weighted Threshold Limit Value (TWA- TLV) for daily occupational exposure has been established for soluble platinum salts at 2 µg Pt/m3 (ACGIH, 1980, 1990). Many countries have adopted this ACGIH value. In addition ACGIH (1980, 1990) recommended a Threshold Limit Value of 1 mg/m3 for platinum metal. In the United Kingdom an occupational exposure limit (8-h TWA) of 5 mg/m3 has been proposed for platinum metal as total inhalable dust (Health and Safety Executive, 1990). The published data base for platinum concentrations at the workplace is meagre. Due to analytical shortcomings older data are not considered reliable. In an early investigation (Fothergill et al., 1945), a platinum content of less than 5 µg/m3 in the atmosphere in the immediate neighbourhood of a refinery was measured using particle filters. In the dry salts handling area, platinum concentrations as high as 70 µg/m3 were found. In another investigation (Hunter et al., 1945), the platinum content in the atmosphere at various points in four refineries was estimated. At most points concentrations varied between 1.6 and 5 µg/m3. Higher concentrations were found in the neutralization of platinum salts (20 µg/m3), sieving spongy platinum (400-900 µg/m3), and crushing ammonium chloroplatinate (1700 µg/m3). Workplace measurements in a catalyst production plant in the USSR were reported to exceed an air concentration of 2 µg/m3 in 33% of the measurements (Gladkova et al., 1974). In a cross-sectional survey (section 9.2), Bolm-Audorff et al. (1988) reported workplace measurements at a platinum refinery in the Federal Republic of Germany. In 1986, concentrations of between 0.08 and 0.1 µg/m3 were measured in the filter press area, but in other working areas platinum salt exposure was generally below the detection limit of 0.05 µg/m3. No data were given on the number of samples. The results obtained during a four-month period of measurements in a US platinum refinery showed that workplace concentrations exceeded the occupational limit of 2 µg/m3 between 50 and 75% of the time ( et al., 1990. In samples of blood, urine, faeces, and hair from employees at a Canadian mine near Sudbury, platinum concentrations were below the limits of detection (0.1 µg per litre or 0.1 µg/kg). Tissue samples from three out of nine autopsies had detectable platinum concentrations in fat (4.5 µg/kg), lung (3.7 µg/kg), or muscle (25.0 µg per kg) ( et al., 1976). However, since the three detectable concentrations were in individuals who, like the other six, showed no platinum concentrations in liver, kidney and spleen, sample contamination was suggested (NAS, 1977). It was concluded that people who work in mining areas probably do not incorporate significant amounts of platinum into their body. Blood samples collected from 61 refinery workers in New Jersey contained no measurable platinum (less than 1.4 µg/litre) ( et al., 1976). However, platinum levels in 10% of the urine samples were above the detection limit of 0.1 µg/litre, the maximum reported value being 2.6 µg/litre. Using the method of LeRoy et al. (1977), platinum serum levels in 11 platinum refinery workers with positive skin tests were analysed. These studies found serum platinum levels ranging from 150 to 440 µg/litre (mean = 240 µg/litre), the quantification limit being 100 µg per litre (Biagini et al., 1985). A special case of possible occupational exposure is the handling of cisplatin and its analogues by pharmacy and nursing staff and other hospital personnel. In a study with two pharmacists (one male and one female) and eight female nurses, platinum levels in urine (0.6-23.1 µg per litre) were at the limit of sensitivity of the AAS method used and did not significantly differ from the controls (2.6-15.0 µg/litre). By comparison, the urine of cisplatin- treated patients contained on average 7 mg/litre (Venitt et al. 1984). 6. KINETICS AND METABOLISM Most toxicokinetic data on platinum, both for experimental animals and humans, have been derived from studies with platinum complexes. et al. (1975c) studied the whole body retention, lung clearance, distribution, and excretion of 191Pt in outbred albino rats ( River CD-1 strain) after single nose-only inhalation exposure to different chemical forms of platinum for 48 min. Particle concentration in the nose-only exposure chambers was approximately 5.0 mg per m3 with 191PtCl4, 5-7 mg/m3 with 191Pt(SO4)2, and 7-8 mg/m3 with PtO2 and 191Pt metal. The aerodynamic diameter was given as 1.0 µm for 191PtCl4 and 191Pt(SO4)2; both aerosols were generated by a nebulizer. The 191PtO2 and 191Pt metal aerosols (aerodynamic diameter not given) were generated by passing Pt(SO4)2 or PtCl4, respectively, through a furnace tube and decomposing them at 600 °C. Whole body counts, showed that most of the inhaled 191Pt was rapidly cleared from the body, followed by a slower clearance phase during the remaining post-exposure period. The whole body retention of 191Pt was approximately 41, 33, 31, and 20%, respectively, of the initial body burden 24 h after exposure to 191PtCl4, 191Pt(SO4)2, 191PtO2, and 191Pt metal. After ten days, the body burden was only about 1, 5, 8, and 6%, respectively. This shows that there was only a slight difference between the clearance rates for the various chemical forms, although the clearance of 191PtCl4 seemed to be the fastest. Clearance from the lungs also reflected the two-phase pharmacokinetics in the whole body, with a fast clearance phase in the first 24 h followed by a slow phase with a half-time of about 8 days. Excretion data from the study by et al. (1975c) indicate that most of the 191Pt cleared from the lungs by mucociliary action was swallowed and excreted via the faeces (half-time 24 h). A small fraction of the 191Pt was detected in the urine, indicating that little was absorbed by the lungs and the gastrointestinal tract. However, no quantitative data were given. As shown in Table 11, the portals of entry, lung and trachea, contained most of the platinum, i.e. 93.5% and 3.9%, respectively, of the total radioactivity (48 618 counts/g) 1 day after exposure. Of the other tissues analysed, highest levels were found in the kidney and bone, suggesting some accumulation in these organs. The low percentages of 1.5% and 0.6%, respectively, on day 1, reflect only a low accumulation tendency; no information on the statistical significance of these figures was provided. Table 11. Radioactive191Pt distribution in the rat following inhalation exposure to platinum metal (7-8 mg/m3, 48 min)a Mean counts/g wet weight after exposure for 1 day 2 days 4 days 8 days Blood 61 43 30 12 Trachea 1909 2510 738 343 Lung 45 462 28 784 28 280 23 543 Liver 52 46 37 17 Kidney 750 1002 906 823 Bone 281 258 231 156 Brain 5 3 1 0 Muscle 22 10 28 0 Spleen 39 73 23 5 Heart 37 58 23 5 a From: et al. (1975c) In a comparative study on the fate of 191PtCl4 (25 µCi per animal) in rats following different routes of exposure ( et al., 1975a, retention followed the classical pattern. The highest retention was found after intravenous administration, the next highest after intratracheal, and the lowest after oral administration. For comparison, retention after inhalation was lower than after intratracheal administration. However, the total dose was much higher with inhalation (7000 µCi) than with intratracheal (25 µCi) administration. Only a minute amount of 191PtCl4 given orally was absorbed. Most of it passed through the gastrointestinal tract and was excreted via the faeces. After 3 days less than 1% of the initial dose was detected in the whole body. Following intravenous administration, 191Pt was excreted in almost equal quantities in both faeces and urine but elimination was slower than after oral dosing. After 3 days, whole body retention was about 65% and after 28 days it was still 14% of the initial dose. By comparison, following intratrachael administration about 22% and 8%, respectively, were retained by the body after these periods ( et al., 1975a,. In the same studies the tissue distribution of 191Pt was determined. After the single oral dose, the kidney and liver contained the highest concentrations, while in the other organs there were no elevated levels. In contrast, after intravenous administration 191Pt was found in all tissues (Table 12). The high concentration of 191Pt found in the kidney shows that once platinum is absorbed most of it collects in the kidney and is excreted in the urine. The liver, spleen, and adrenal gland also contained higher platinum concentrations than the blood. The lower level in the brain suggests that platinum ions probably cross the blood-brain barrier only to a limited extent ( et al., 1975a,. This was confirmed by Lown et al. (1980) in male Swiss mice given single intragastric doses of Pt(SO4)2 (144 or 213 mg Pt/kg body weight). Platinum levels in the blood were several times higher than in the brain. Clearance from the whole body was slower than in the rat studies. This could be due to species-specific differences. In addition, the mice received much higher doses than the rats. Lown et al. (1980) noted an enhancing effect of the higher dose on absorption. In a long-term study, Holbrook (1977) found evidence that a platinum-binding protein is induced. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received platinum salts ad libitum either in the drinking-water or in the dry feed. The sequential platinum contents in the tissues analysed are shown in Table 13. The data demonstrate that the oral administration of water-soluble platinum compounds, i.e. PtCl4 and Pt(SO4)2, results in accumulation of platinum in some organs, primarily the kidney. After 4 weeks, the platinum content of the kidney was about 8-fold higher than that of the liver and spleen, and at least 16-fold higher than in the blood and testis (except for the highest dose of PtCl4). The total platinum intake after 4 weeks increased by 4.3 times and the platinum content in kidney, spleen, and blood increased by at least 7 times as compared with the 1-week levels. It is notable that a more than 2-fold increase in the intake of platinum (after a 4-week consumption of PtCl4 in the dry feed; 743 vs. 1616 mg Pt/rat) did not lead to an increase in the platinum content of the kidney, in contrast to the situation in the liver and spleen. This observation was not corroborated with Pt(SO4)2. Table 12. Radioactive191Pt distribution (counts/g wet weight) in the rat following a single intravenous dose of PtCl4(25 µCi/animal)a Tissue 1 day 2 days 7 days 14 days % counts/g % counts/g % counts/g % counts/g Blood 0.91 22 147 0.81 19 732 0.52 12 774 0.32 7921 Heart 0.48 11 819 0.50 12 201 0.36 8 805 0.19 4593 Lung 0.75 18 432 0.66 16 139 0.46 11 180 0.24 5770 Liver 1.51 36 848 1.28 31 274 1.05 25 732 0.19 4733 Kidney 6.65 162 227 6.59 160 656 5.66 138 010 1.24 30 195 Spleen 1.68 41 085 1.89 45 840 2.29 55 764 0.86 20 973 Pancreas 0.91 22 208 0.80 19 487 0.60 14 802 0.16 3973 Bone 0.53 13 146 0.52 12 800 0.37 8932 0.22 5440 Brain 0.05 1150 0.10 2485 0.02 595 0.01 265 Fat 0.18 4487 0.18 4501 0.13 3201 0.02 429 Testes 0.17 4186 0.27 6540 0.16 3873 0.06 1431 Adrenal 1.86 45 439 1.74 42 363 1.09 26 667 0.25 6190 Muscle 0.19 4798 0.19 4671 0.14 3441 0.09 2146 Duodenal segment 0.52 12 725 0.25 6044 0.16 4031 0.06 1410 a Adapted from: et al. (1975a) Table 13. Dietary levels, total platinum consumption, and platinum content of tissues after oral administration of platinum salts to ratsa Pt consumption Pt content (mg/kg wet weight; mean ± SE)b Platinum Duration Dietary Total salt (weeks) level (mg Pt/ Liver Kidney Spleen Testis Brain Blood (as Pt) rat) PtCl4 1 319c 59 2.2 4.8 0.24 0.23 ± 0.2 PtCl4 4 319c 255 2.5 33.7 4.8 1.5 0.11 2.1 ± 0.9 ± 3.5 ± 1.5 ± 0.5 ± 0.07 ± 0.4 PtCl4 4 1147d 743 3.2 33.5 3.1 1.1 < 0.02 1.5 ± 0.9 ± 6.3 ± 0.9 ± 0.4 ± 0.4 PtCl4 4 2581d 1616 8.9 32.4 6.4 1.7 0.12 1.6 ± 1.2 ± 4.6 ± 3.0 ± 0.3 ± 0.08 ± 0.2 PtCl4 13 106c 389 1.3 14.9 1.6 0.94 < 0.06 0.9 ± 0.3 ± 0.4 ± 0.3 ± 0.20 ± 0.08 Pt(SO4)2.4H2O 1 106c 26 0.07 0.26 < 0.02 < 0.04 0.05 ± 0.02 Pt(SO4)2.4H2O 1 319c 78 0.85 4.6 0.13 < 0.02 0.22 Pt(SO4)2.4H2O 4 1147d 716 3.5 43.4 3.2 1.1 0.33 1.6 ± 0.4 ± 8.3 ± 0.5 ± 0.1 ± 0.18 ± 0.3 PtO2 4 5808d 4308 < 2.2 < 2.2 < 0.02 < 0.07 < 0.02 < 0.04 a Adapted from: Holbrook (1977) b Standard error (SE) is given for four values; only the mean is given when two values are available c mg Pt/litre d mg Pt/kg In contrast to the water-soluble salts, insoluble PtO2 was only taken up in minute amounts even though the salt was administered in the diet at an extremely high level resulting in a total consumption of 4308 mg Pt/rat over the 4-week period (Holbrook, 1977). et al. (1975a) also administered 191PtCl4 (25 µCi/animal) intravenously to 15 pregnant rats on day 18 of gestation to determine placental transfer after 24 h. High levels of 191Pt radioactivity were found in the kidney (127 064 counts/g) and liver (43 375 counts/g), compared with 10 568 counts/g in the blood. Accumulation was also found in the placenta (27 750 counts/g). 191Pt was detected in the 60 fetuses examined, but only at very low concentrations (an average of 432 counts/g). Thus, the placental barrier is crossed to a limited extent. In contrast to the simple platinum salts, the diammine complexes such as cisplatin (see footnote in section 1.2) are excreted primarily in the urine. In mice, Hoeschele & Van Camp (1972) found about 90% of the intraperitoneally injected dose in the urine within five days. Little or no excretion occurred via the faeces. A high urinary recovery was also observed in rats and dogs (Hoeschele & Van Camp, 1972; Lange et al., 1972; Litterst et al., 1976a,b, 1979; Cvitkovic et al., 1977). The excretion of both cis- and trans- diamminedichloroplatinum(II) follows a biphasic pattern with a fast initial alpha-phase and a second slow ß-phase. The variation in the plasma half-lives is due to species differences and variations in dose, route of administration, time points analysed, and analytical method used (Litterst et al., 1979). The extremely rapid alpha-phase accounts for early, high levels of platinum in kidney, liver, skin, bone, ovary, and uterus. The prolonged ß-phase results in detectable urine platinum concentrations 30 days after a single dose. For both the simple platinum salts and cisplatin complexes, an initial rapid clearance is followed by a prolonged clearance phase during the remaining post-exposure period, and there is no evidence for markedly different retention profiles between these two groups of platinum compounds (Rosenberg, 1980). All animal species studied show a similar organ distribution pattern for cisplatin. An initial distribution to nearly all tissues is followed by accumulation in the first hour mainly in kidney, liver, muscle, and skin. By the end of the first day, plasma levels decrease rapidly and there are elevated platinum levels in numerous other tissues (Litterst et al., 1979). Cisplatin is extensively bound to plasma proteins; 90% of it may be bound 2 h after an intravenous injection. The bound portion is no longer cytotoxic (Safirstein et al., 1983; Sternson et al., 1984). In addition to its reactivity with plasma protein, renal excretion leads to a very low concentration of free cisplatin in the plasma and to a rapid accumulation in the kidney. Due to the presence of high chloride ion concentrations, cisplatin is relatively stable in extracellular fluids (see also section 7.6), which explains why it is excreted mainly in the unchanged form in human and rat urine (Safirstein et al., 1983). 7. EFFECTS ON LABORATORY MAMMALS AND IN VITRO TEST SYSTEMS 7.1 Single exposure Acute toxicity data on platinum mainly relate to its coordination complexes, the chloroplatinates and ammines. Hofmeister (1882) was one of the first to test ammonium salts containing divalent and tetravalent platinum with various numbers of ammine ligands. He injected solutions of platinum complexes into the dorsal lymphatic sac of single frogs and subcutaneously into the dorsal skin of single rabbits. The symptoms observed included vomiting and diarrhoea with bloody stools and a " curare-like " action of the salts. The acute toxicity of platinum depends considerably on the species of platinum involved (Table 14). Soluble platinum compounds are much more toxic. Hence, in the study of Holbrook (1976a) oral toxicity to rats decreased in the following order: PtCl4 > Pt(SO4)2.4H2O > PtCl2 > PtO2. For the two latter compounds no LD50 could be derived. Signs of poisoning observed, for example, with (NH4)2[PtCl4], include hypokinesia, piloerection, diarrhoea, clonic convulsions, laboured respiration, and cyanosis (Degussa, 1989a). Hexachloroplatinic acid is highly nephrotoxic in rats. After an intraperitoneal LD50 injection of 40-50 mg/kg, rats died of renal failure, hypocalcaemia, and hyperkalaemia. The necrotizing renal tubular lesions involved the entire renal cortex (Ward et al., 1976). In its metallic state, platinum has an extremely low acute toxicity. Thus some alloys containing platinum are used in protheses. Fine dust particles of metallic platinum, 1-5 µm in diameter, orally administered to rats caused only slight necrotic changes in the gastrointestinal epithelium, granular dystrophy of hepatocytes, and swelling in the epithelium of the convoluted renal tubules (Roshchin et al., 1979, 1984). The highest dose given was not lethal. The dose was reported as " 129 µA/kg " (25 167 µg per kg; personal communication from Prof. A.V. Roshchin to IPCS dated 3 April 1991). Due to the different absorption rates for platinum compounds, the route of administration also affects the toxicity, the intraperitoneal and intravenous routes leading to much higher toxicity than the oral route (Table 14). Table 14. Acute toxicity of platinum and platinum compounds after oral (p.o.), intraperitoneal (i.p.), and intravenous (i.v.) administration to rats Compound Route Sexa LD50 Reference (mg/kg) PtO2 p.o. m > 8000 Holbrook et al. (1976a, PtCl2 p.o. m > 2000 Holbrook et al. (1976a, PtCl2 p.o. m 3423b Roshchin et al. (1984) PtCl2 i.p. m 670 Holbrook et al. (1976a, PtCl4 p.o. m 240 Holbrook et al. (1976a, PtCl4 p.o. m/f 276b Roshchin et al. (1984) PtCl4 i.p. m 38 Holbrook et al. (1976a, PtCl4 i.v. m 26.2 et al. (1975b) PtCl4 i.v. m 41.4 et al. (1975b) Pt(SO4)2.4 H2O p.o. m 1010 Holbrook et al. (1976a, Pt(SO4)2.4 H2O i.p. m 310c Holbrook et al. (1976a, Pt(SO4)2.4 H2O i.p. m 138-184c Holbrook et al. (1976a, (NH4)2[PtCl6] p.o. m/f 195b Roshchin et al. (1984) (NH4)2[PtCl6] p.o. m/f approx. 200 Matthey (1978a) (NH4)2[PtCl4] p.o. m 212 Degussa (1989a) (NH4)2[PtCl4] p.o. f 125 Degussa (1989a) H2[PtCl6] i.p. m 40-50 Ward et al. (1976) Na2[PtCl6] p.o. m/f 25-50 Matthey (1978b) Na2[Pt(OH)6] p.o. m/f 500-2000 Matthey (1978c) K2[PtCl4] p.o. m/f 50-200 Matthey (1981a, K2[Pt(CN)4] p.o. m/f > 2000 Matthey (1977a) [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2 p.o. m/f > 15 000 Matthey (1977b) [Pt(NO2)2(NH3)2] p.o. m approx. 5000 Degussa (1989b) [Pt(NO2)2(NH3)2] p.o. f > 5110 Degussa (1989b) [Pt(C5H7O2)2] p.o. m/f > 500 Matthey (1976a) cis-[PtCl2(NH3)2]d p.o. m/f approx. 20 Matthey (1977c) cis-[PtCl2(NH3)2]d i.p. m 12 Kociba & Sleight (1971) cis-[PtCl2(NH3)2]d i.p. m 7.7 Ward & Fauvie (1976) cis-[PtCl2(NH3)2]d i.v. m 7.4 Ward et al. (1976) trans-[PtCl2(NH3)2] p.o. m/f > 5110 Degussa (1989c) a m = male; f = female b Calculated from the original values given as mg A/kg (= milligramme atom/kg) c Results from two different laboratories d See footnote in section 1.2 7.2 Short-term exposure Holbrook et al. (1975) conducted repeated-dose oral toxicity studies on male Sprague-Dawley rats. The soluble salts PtCl4 and Pt(SO4)2.4H2O were added to the drinking-water, which was consumed ad libitum. Within the observation period of 4 weeks, a concentration of 0.54 mmol/litre (182 mg PtCl4/litre or 248 mg Pt(SO4)2.4H2O per litre) did not affect the normal weight gain. A 3-fold increase in the platinum concentration to 1.63 mmol/litre reduced the weight gain by about 20% during the first week only; this paralleled a 20% decrease in feed and fluid consumption. The dietary administration of PtCl4 at concentrations of 0.5 mmol/litre for approximately 30 days or 1.6 mmol/litre for 8 days (169 and 539 mg/litre, respectively) did not affect the weights of any of the five organs investigated, i.e. liver, kidney, spleen, heart, and testes. Similarly, the administration of 1.6 mmol per litre of Pt(SO4)2.4H2O (734 mg/litre) for 8-9 days did not significantly affect organ weights. Total platinum intake for each of these three experimental conditions was approximately 50 mg per rat. When 1.6 mmol PtCl4/litre (539 mg/litre) was given for about 30 days (total intake of about 250 mg Pt per rat), the kidney weight increased by about 6-10%. No effects on the level of microsomal protein or the activities of aniline hydroxylase and aminopyrine demethylase in liver microsomes were found (Holbrook, 1976b). 7.3 Skin and eye irritation; skin and respiratory sensitization 7.3.1 Skin irritation The dermal irritancy of several platinum compounds was tested on albino rabbits using comparable procedures and evaluation criteria. Platinum test materials were spread on abraded and intact skin sites, located dorsolaterally on the animals' trunks. The skin reactions were evaluated after 24, 48, and 72 h, and are summarized in Table 15. 7.3.2 Eye irritation Summarized data on eye irritation are presented in Table 15. All tested platinum salts were either corrosive or irritating to varying degrees. 7.3.3 Skin sensitization In a study by Kolpakova & Kolpakov (1983), platinum hydrochlorides administered intravenously to rabbits in repeated doses induced sensitization confirmed by the basophil degranulation test, neutrophil damage index, leucocyte agglomeration, neutrophil alteration, and the drop skin and skin fenestra tests. These data are unusual and have not been confirmed in other studies. Table 15. Skin and eye irritation by platinum compoundsa Skin irritation testb Eye irritation testc Compound Primary Classification Reference Classification Reference irritation score PtO2 0 non-irritant et al. (1975) PtCl2 0.4d non-irritant et al. (1975) PtCl4 2.2e irritant et al. (1975) (NH4)2[PtCl6] 1.3 mild irritant Matthey (1978d) (NH4)2[PtCl4] 2.7 slight irritant Degussa (1988a) corrosive Degussa (1988b) Na2[PtCl6] 0.5 mild irritant Matthey (1978e) irritant Matthey (1978f) Na2[Pt(OH)6] 5.4 severe irritant Matthey (1978g) K2[PtCl4] 0f non-irritant Matthey (1981c) irritant Matthey (1981d) K2[Pt(CN)4] 0.3 mild irritant Matthey (1977d) irritant Matthey (1978h) [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2 2.8 moderate irritant Matthey (1977e) strongly irritant Matthey (1977f) [Pt(NO2)2(NH3)2] 0 non-irritant Degussa (1989d) severely irritant Degussa (1989e) [Pt(C5H7O2)2] 0 non-irritant Matthey (1976b) mildly irritant Matthey (1976c) cis-[PtCl2(NH3)2] 0.13 mild irritant Matthey (1977g) severely irritant Matthey (1977h) (toxic) trans-[PtCl2(NH3)2] 0 non-irritant Degussa (1988c) corrosive Degussa (1988d) a Adapted from Bradford (1988) b The skin tests (patch tests on albino rabbits) were carried out according to the US Federal Register 1973 Skin Test (24 h-contact) ( Matthey) or according to OECD Test Guideline No. 404 (4-h contact) (Degussa). The method used by et al. (1975) is comparable to these tests. c The eye irritation tests on albino rabbits were carried out according to the US Federal Register 1973 Eye Test ( Matthey) or according to OECD Guideline No. 405 (Degussa). d Average score from 0.2 (intact skin) and 0.6 (abraded skin); a score of 0-0.9 was considered as " non-irritant " by the authors. e Average score from 1.8 (intact skin) and 2.6 (abraded skin); a score of 2 was considered as " irritant " by the authors. f Using OECD Test Guideline No. 404 (4-h contact). Taubler (1977) injected rabbits, guinea-pigs, and mice subcutaneously and intravenously with PtSO4 (0.05-0.3 mg/litre with and without NH4Cl) three times a week for 4 weeks. No induction of an allergic state was found, as measured by skin tests (guinea-pigs and rabbits), passive transfer, and footpad tests (mice). Administration of platinum-egg-albumin complex also failed to sensitize the experimental animals. In a study by Murdoch & Pepys (1985), rats were immunized with ovalbumin-platinum. Sera of the animals which were positive in the passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) test and a radioallergosorbent test (RAST) were pooled and used for PCA tests with other platinum salts having differing ligands. A significant cross-reactivity between ammonium tetrachloroplatinate(II), ammonium hexachloroplatinate(IV), and the conjugated tetrachloroplatinate was observed. There was very limited or no cross-reactivity with the compounds cesium trichloronitroplatinate(II), cis- diamminedichloroplatinum(II), potassium tetracyanoplatinate(II), and tetraammineplatinum(II) chloride. 7.3.4 Skin and respiratory sensitization Biagini et al. (1983) exposed two groups of Cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fasicularis) to disodium hexachloroplatinate, Na2[PtCl6], by nose-only inhalation of 200 and 2000 µg/m3, 4h/day, biweekly for 12 weeks. Another group was exposed percutaneously to the salt (20 mg/ml) applied biweekly to an open patch area in the intrascapular region. Two weeks after termination of exposure, bronchoprovocation challenges with Na2[PtCl6] and pulmonary function tests were performed. Percutaneous application did not affect post-challenge pulmonary function. The 200 µg/m3 group showed significantly greater pulmonary deficits as compared to control animals. Average pulmonary flow resistance (RL) was significantly increased, while forced expiratory volume in 0.5 seconds, corrected for vital capacity (FEV0.5/FVC), was decreased. No dermal hypersensitivity was observed. The question of whether the observed pulmonary hyper-reactivity is due to a superpharmacological, irritant, local immune, or combination mechanism is unresolved. The absence of hyper-reactivity in the 2000-µg/m3 group suggests a possible pulmonary tolerance mechanism, tachyphylaxis, or delay in the development of symptoms at higher sensitization concentrations. 7.3.5 Respiratory sensitization In a 12-week inhalation experiment with Cynomolgus monkeys exposed to either ammonium hexachloroplatinate (200 µg/m3) or ozone (2000 µg/m3; 1 ppm) alone or as a combination of both, Biagini et al. (1986) found significant allergic platinum dermal hypersensitivity, based on concentrations necessary to give a positive test, and pulmonary hyper-reactivity only with concomitant exposure to ozone. Inflammation, epithelial damage, cell recruitment, and modifications of cellular tight junctions caused by ozone may increase the penetration of platinum into the pulmonary epithelium and subepithelial tissue. This could lead to increased protein binding sites or absorption of the platinum salts and finally to the development of pulmonary hyper-reactivity and allergic sensitization (Biagini et al., 1986). 7.3.6 Sensitization by other routes Murdoch & Pepys (1984) investigated the immunological responses to complex platinum salts in the female hooded Lister rat, a strain that produces high and consistent levels of circulating IgE when immunized with low doses of antigen together with Bordetella pertussis adjuvant, and that reacts with enhanced synthesis of IgE upon secondary boosting. Sensitization with the free salt of ammonium tetrachloroplatinate, (NH4)2[PtCl4], was attempted via the intraperitoneal, intramuscular, intradermal, subcutaneous, intratracheal, and footpad routes over a wide range of doses (1 to 1000 µg). Both B. pertussis and/or aluminium hydroxide gel were added as adjuvants. As shown by direct skin testing using the PCA or RAST methods, no sensitization was achieved. However, sensitization was obtained by intraperitoneal injection of the platinum salt conjugated to ovalbumin (OVA). Antibodies were produced to Pt-OVA and to OVA alone. Specific sensitization was demonstrated both by PCA challenge with Pt-BSA (no positive PCA reactions were seen with BSA alone) and by positive RAST, demonstrated by RAST inhibition techniques with a Pt-BSA conjugate. 7.4 Reproductive toxicity, embryotoxicity, and teratogenicity Only limited experimental data concerning the effects of platinum on reproduction, embryotoxicity, and teratogenicity are available. D'Agostino et al. (1984) studied the embryotoxic effects of platinum compounds in Swiss ICR mice. Single doses of either Pt(SO4)2.4H2O or Na2[PtCl6].6H2O were administered intragastrically or subcutaneously, respectively, on the 7th and 12th day of gestation. The pups were cross-fostered to treated or untreated dams at birth and were culled to three animals of each sex per litter. In the Pt(SO4)2 study, the LD1 wdose of 200 mg Pt/kg caused a reduced offspring weight from day 8 to day 45 postpartum. The major effect of disodium hexachloroplatinate (20 mg Pt/kg) was a reduced activity level exhibited by the offspring of dams exposed on the 12th day of gestation. The general activity was quantified on an activity field consisting of concentric circles. The number of lines crossed during 1 min comprised the activity score. On days 60-65 postpartum, open-field behaviour (ambulation and rearing), rotarod performance, and passive avoidance learning were investigated in the adult offspring. No effects were found after administration on the 7th day, but administration on day 12 of gestation had significant behavioural effects. Solid platinum, wire or foil, is considered to be biologically inert and adverse effects on implantation are probable due to the physical presence of a foreign object in the uterus (Barlow & Sullivan, 1982). Kraft et al. (1978) reported normal fertility in male rabbits with open tube gold/platinum devices inserted into the vas deferens. There was an initial decrease in sperm count and motility, but these parameters returned to normal after three weeks. At 117-426 days after insertion, 7 out of 9 animals were fertile in numerous matings. Effects on human sperm motility were investigated by Kesseru & Leon (1974). Fresh sperm were incubated for up to 5 h in the presence of strips of platinum or other metals. Motility after 2 and 5 h was 60 and 30%, respectively, compared to 10 and 0% for copper, 40 and 7% for silver, and 90 and 65% for gold. Platinum wire inserted into the uterus of rats was reported to reduce the implantation of fertilized ova. An 83% reduction in the number of implantation sites in the affected uterine horn, compared to the unoperated horn, was found in rats unilaterally implanted on day 3 (Chang et al., 1970). Chang & Tatum (1975) found no effect on embryonic or fetal survival if platinum wire was inserted after implantation on day 6. Tobert & Davies (1977) showed a 37% reduction in the number of implanting ova in the uteri of rabbits containing platinum foil. 7.5 Mutagenicity and related end-points The genotoxic effects of platinum compounds have been investigated in bacterial systems, mammalian cell cultures and in vitro studies. In bacteria many of the tested platinum compounds were moderately mutagenic. Cisplatin and some of its analogues showed the greatest mutagenic potential; other platinum compounds were less mutagenic. In Ames tests, nearly all using the test strains Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and TA100, positive results were reported (Lecointe et al., 1977; Andersen, 1979; Suraikina et al., 1979; Life Science Research, 1980a; Kanematsu et al., 1980). With [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2, mutagenic potential was observed in strain TA1537 with and without S-9 metabolic activation (Life Science Research, 1980a). The induction of reverse mutations in the plasmid-carrying strains TA98 and TA100 indicated base-pair substitution and frame- shift mutations (Lecointe et al., 1977; Suraikina et al., 1979; Kanematsu et al., 1980). (NH4)2[PtCl6] but not PtCl4 caused base-change mutation in Escherichia coli B/r WP2 (Kanematsu et al., 1980). The growth of a Rec strain of Bacillus subtilis was significantly inhibited by (NH4)2[PtCl6] (0.1 mol/litre), H2[PtCl6] (0.01 mol/litre), and PtCl4 (0.01 mol/litre) (Kanematsu et al., 1980). In a mutagenic test with the mouse lymphoma cell line L 5178Y, cisplatin, transplatin, and PtCl4 produced significantly higher mutation frequencies than occurred in the controls, but [Pt(NO2)2](NH3)2 and PtCl2 did not (Sandhu, 1979). Cellular resistance to the toxic effects of two platinum complexes was introduced into Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells by continuous exposure to K2[PtCl6] and Pt(SO4)2 for 5 and 4 months, respectively. These cell lines had resistant phenotypes stable for at least 55 population doublings in the absence of a platinum compound. The induced resistances were interpreted by the authors to be a result of mutation and selection ( et al., 1984). In a micronucleus test in mice involving oral administration of [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2, no significant increase in the incidence of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes was found. Additionally, [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2 did not markedly inhibit bone marrow cell division at any level (Life Science Research, 1980b). Also, no evidence of induced chromosomal damage leading to micronucleus formation in polychromatic erythrocytes was observed after oral administration of K2[PtCl4] in mice (Life Science Research, 1981a). No significant increase in the incidence of aberrant metaphases was found in bone marrow cells after subacute oral administration of [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2 or K2[PtCl4] to Chinese hamsters (Life Science Research, 1981b, 1982). K2[PtCl4] and [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2 induced no increase in the frequency of sex-linked recessive lethal mutations in Drosophila melanogaster (Life Science Research, 1980c, 1981c). In a structure-mutagenicity study with the CHO:HGPRT-system, cis-[Pt(NH3)2Cl2] was the most potent of six platinum compounds tested. Based on the slope of the mutation induction curve, the approximate relative mutagenic activity of cis- [Pt(NH3)2Cl2], K[Pt(NH3)Cl3], and [Pt(NH3)3Cl]Cl was 100:9:0.3. The mutation frequency for K2[PtCl4] and trans- [Pt(NH3)2Cl2] was related to the concentration used, but was not much greater than the maximum spontaneous mutation frequency. No mutagenic activity was observed for [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2. The relative cytotoxicity of the tested compounds was similar. Additionally, it was found that cis- and trans- [Pt(NH3)2Cl2] bind to DNA after entering the cell, but the relative mutagenicities are not a consequence of different initial levels of DNA binding ( et al., 1980). Dose-dependent forward mutations were induced by PtCl4 to 8- azaguanine resistance (8-AGR/HGPRT locus) in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-S) cells. In addition there was an increased dose-related frequency of CHO-AUXB1 reversion ( et al., 1979) Cisplatin, which is not reviewed in detail in this document (see footnote in section 1.2), induces structural chromosomal aberrations and sister chromatid exchanges in cells of rodents treated in vivo, chromosomal aberrations, micronuclei, and sister chromatid exchanges in both human and rodent cells in vitro, and mutation and DNA damage in rodent cells in vitro. Cisplatin is also mutagenic in Drosophila, fungal, and bacterial test systems (IARC, 1987a). 7.6 Carcinogenicity and anticarcinogenicity No experimental data are available on the carcinogenicity of platinum and platinum compounds except for cisplatin (see footnote in section 1.2). IARC (1987b) considered sufficient the evidence for the carcinogenicity of cisplatin for animals (see chapter 13). Cisplatin and its analogues, however, are exceptional compared to the other platinum compounds. This is reflected by the unique mechanism for their anti-neoplastic activity demonstrated in in vitro studies (Rosenberg, 1980, 1985). At low doses cisplatin produces specific inhibition of DNA synthesis (but not of RNA and protein synthesis) by causing DNA lesions such as monofunctional adducts, bifunctional binding to a single base moiety, and DNA cross-links of inter- and intrastrand types (Harder & Rosenberg, 1970; Howle & Gale, 1970). There is sufficient evidence that the DNA cross-links are responsible for cellular toxicity, but not for anti- tumour activity. For the latter, another observation probably plays the decisive role; only the cis isomer forms a closed ring chelate of the aquated cisplatin with guanine at a certain position of guanine. Thus, intrastrand DNA cross-linking is considered to be the most important reason for anti-tumour activity. It appears that, due to the cisplatin-induced DNA cross-links, the replication of DNA is impaired in cancer cells, while in normal cells the cisplatin lesions on guanine are repaired before replication (Rosenberg, 1985; Pinto & Lippard, 1985). The high chloride concentration of the extracellular fluid (112 mmol/litre) is sufficient to limit the substitution of water ligands for chloride. However, within the cell the platinum complex is exposed to low chloride concentrations (4.4 mmol/litre) and hydrolysis of the chloride leaving groups can occur (Rosenberg, 1975), a process that has been shown to accelerate the rate of reaction of platinum with DNA ( et al., 1980) and to increase its toxicity (Litterst, 1981). This hydration provides the only known activation process required for cisplatin to react with molecules in the cell, and metabolic activation is not required (Rosenberg, 1980). The binding of cisplatin with plasma proteins, on the other hand, is not inhibited by chloride and presumably involves a different mechanism (De Conti et al., 1973), such as the strong electrophiles on proteins (Cleare, 1977a). 7.7 Other special studies 7.7.1 Effects on alveolar macrophages Rabbit alveolar macrophages exposed to the water-soluble platinum(IV) chloride at a concentration of 0.4 mmol/litre (78 mg Pt/litre) for a period of 20 h exhibited a 50% reduction in macrophage viability. A reduction in phagocytic activity and a decrease in total cellular adenosine triphosphate to 50% of the value in control macrophages was observed at 0.21 and 0.25 mmol/litre (41 and 48 mg Pt/litre). Platinum(IV) oxide (PtO2) did not dissolve in the culture medium and, hence, was ineffective at concentrations as high as 500 mg/litre (Waters et al., 1975). 7.7.2 Non-allergic mediator release Investigations in guinea-pigs, rats, and dogs showed an increase in bronchomotility and histamine release after intravenous treatment with disodium chloroplatinate, Na2[PtCl6] (Saindelle & Ruff, 1969; Parrot et al., 1969). Saindelle & Ruff (1969) noticed dyspnoea one minute after an intravenous injection of disodium chloroplatinate (20 mg/kg) into guinea-pigs. Within 5 min an intense attack of asthma occurred resulting in death. Histamine release occurred following the injection and the blood histamine level was greatly increased. The injection of a smaller dose (1-2 mg/kg) resulted in bronchospasm comparable to that caused by 3 µg/kg of histamine. Repeated injections of histamine caused reproducible changes in bronchial motility, whereas the platinum compound caused tachyphylaxis. The intense breathing difficulties observed in these studies were presumably due to non-allergenic histamine release. This nonspecific histamine release has complicated the interpretation of both animal and human studies with respect to the conclusion of allergic sensitization. 7.7.3 Effects on mitochondrial function No pronounced effects of platinum on the mitochondrial function of liver, heart, lung or kidney cells were observed in an in vitro test on succinate-stimulated O2 uptake 24 and 48 h after intragastric administration of 40 and 80 µmol K2[PtCl6]/litre (19 and 38 mg/litre) to Sprague-Dawley rats ( et al., 1976). 7.7.4 Effects on the nervous system The open field behaviour of adult Swiss mice has been found to be influenced by platinum salts administered intragastrically in the form of a single dose or of repeated doses. A single dose of Pt(SO4)2 at the LD25 level (213 mg Pt/kg body weight) depressed ambulation significantly and rearing marginally. For ambulation, this pattern persisted from 4 h to 7 days after administration, although the effect was most obvious at 4 h. Repeated doses of the same salt at the LD1 level (up to 10 doses of 109 mg Pt/kg every 72 h) caused a marginal depression of activity and exploratory behaviour (Lown et al., 1980). Also, a single dose of Na2[PtCl6] depressed ambulation significantly (Massaro et al., 1981). During the course of a reproduction study, behavioural effects were observed in the offspring of mice treated with sodium hexachloroplatinate (see section 7.4; D'Agostino et al., 1984). 7.7.5 Side effects of cisplatin and its analoguesa As discussed in section 8.3, the therapeutic use of cisplatin in humans can be accompanied by several toxic side-effects. In animal studies, only some of which are presented in this monograph, similar effects were observed. Ward et al. (1976) investigated the nephrotoxicity of cisplatin and its analogues in male F-344 (Fischer CDF) rats. An intravenous LD50 dose of cisplatin (7.4 mg Pt/kg body weight) caused an increase in the blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels reaching a peak on days 4 to 5. Diarrhoea developed by day 3. Necrotizing enteritis of the small intestine, caecum, and colon, cellular depletion of bone marrow and thymus, and acute degenerative and necrotizing renal tubular lesions also occurred (Ward et al., 1976). Oxoplatinum ( cis-dichlorodiammine-trans- dihydroxyplatinum(IV)) also caused marked nephrotoxicity after intravenous administration (20 mg/kg as a single dose) to rats. However, another cisplatin analogue, CBDCA ( cis-diammine-l,1- cyclobutane dicarboxylate platinum(II)), did not result in significant changes in renal function parameters (Laznickova et al., 1989). a See footnote in section 1.2. Cisplatin has been found to cause bone marrow suppression. The surviving fraction of haemopoietic bone-marrow system cells in mice decreased from 1 to 0.03 after treatment with an LD50 dose of cisplatin (Lelieveld et al., 1984). A 36-53% decrease in lymphocyte and granulocyte counts was observed in mouse bone marrow after intra-peritoneal treatment with 5 mg cisplatin/kg (Bodenner et al., 1986). Cisplatin administered intraperitoneally (6 mg/kg) has been shown to affect gastric emptying in rats. There was a large increase in the weight of the stomach due to retained food (Whitehouse & Garrett, 1984). In dogs, cisplatin given intravenously as a dose of 2 mg/kg resulted in a complete interruption of interdigestive myoelectric activity of the gastric antrum, duodenum, and jejunum (Chey et al., 1988). Ototoxicity has been demonstrated in guinea-pigs. A cisplatin dose of 1.5 mg/kg administered intraperitoneally once a day caused hearing loss beginning at about the ninth day of administration (Hoeve et al., 1987). 7.8 Factors modifying toxicity Physiological levels of selenium administered simultaneously with food to mice markedly depressed the acute toxicity of some platinum salts by forming inert complexes of high relative molecular mass in the presence of protein (Imura, 1986). 8. EFFECTS ON HUMANS 8.1 General population exposure 8.1.1 Acute toxicity - poisoning Except for one case of poisoning in 1896 (Hardman & , 1896), no acute poisoning cases have been reported. 8.1.2 Effects of exposure to platinum emitted from automobile catalysts An immunological study conducted by Cleare (1977b) addressed the question of whether the emitted platinum is allergenic. He investigated the response of individuals, who were highly sensitive to platinum salt (skin test positive at low platinum salt concentrations), to extracts of particulate exhaust samples. The total platinum content at the highest concentration was more than 5 µg/ml, which would normally be sufficient to elicit a response. Five extracts tested on three people, using the skin prick test, did not elicit a positive response. 8.2 Occupational exposure The occupational hazards of platinum are principally confined to some halogenated complex platinum salts (Rosner & Merget, 1990). 8.2.1 Case reports and cross-sectional studies A report of health problems arising from occupational exposure to platinum was produced by Karasek & Karasek (1911). They studied workers in photographic studios in Chicago handling photographic paper treated with complex platinum salts. The symptoms observed in eight workers were pronounced irritation of the nose and throat causing violent sneezing and coughing, together with difficulties in breathing. Hunter et al. (1945) conducted environmental and clinical studies on workers in four British platinum refineries. Out of 91 workers exposed to complex salts of platinum, 52 showed symptoms starting with repeated sneezing and rhinorrhoea, followed by tightness of the chest, shortness of breath, cyanosis, and wheezing. Scaly erythematous dermatitis of hands and forearms, sometimes also affecting the face and neck, and urticaria were observed in 13 workers. The respiratory tract symptoms persisted during working hours and for about one hour after leaving the factory. The latency period from the first contact with platinum to the occurrence of the first symptoms varied from a few months to six years. Once skin and respiratory tract sensitization was established, symptoms tended to become worse as long as the workers were exposed to platinum salts. In the USA, (1951) studied 21 employees of a platinum refinery for five years. All workers showed some form of platinum- related disease for which (1951) introduced the term " platinosis " . According to his classification of this occupational disease, 40% of the employees did not have typical symptoms but exhibited the same inflammatory changes in the conjunctivae and the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract as were seen in the 60% of the workers with definite symptoms. These observations have been confirmed by other investigators. The term " platinosis " is no longer used, as it implies a chronic fibrosing lung disease. This had been assumed by (1951) but has not been reported elsewhere. The terms " platinum salt allergy " (Schultze-Werninghaus et al., 1978), " platinum salt sensitivity " (Linnett, 1987), " allergy to platinum compounds containing reactive halogen ligands " (, 1980) and " platinum salt hypersensitivity " (PSH) have been used, with the latter being preferred. The symptoms typical of platinum salt sensitization (Roshchin et al., 1979; Health and Safety Executive, 1983; et al., 1990) include watering of the eyes, sneezing, tightness of the chest, wheezing, breathlessness, coughing, eczematous and urticarial skin lesions, signs of mucous membrane inflammation. In earlier studies, the prevalence of allergic symptoms due to platinum salt exposure was as high as 80% (Table 16) although this was not consistently confirmed by skin testing. Estimated workplace exposure concentrations ranged from 0.9 to 1700 µg Pt/m3 (Hunter et al., 1945). However, due to analytical deficiencies, these data do not allow the quantification of these exposure situations. It can be assumed that occupational exposure is much lower today due to improved engineering control and occupational exposure limits. Airborne dust analyses in a platinum refinery revealed levels between 0.08 and 0.1 µg/m3 in the separation department; in other areas the measurements were all below 0.05 µg/m3 (Bolm-Audorff et al., 1988) or below 0.08 µg/m3 (Merget et al., 1988). Work-related symptoms were reported in 8 to 23% of workers exposed to these concentrations (Table 16). The risk of developing platinum salt hypersensitivity seems to be correlated with the intensity of exposure. In the surveys of Bolm-Audorff et al. (1988) and Merget et al. (1988), the highest rates of prevalence occurred in the groups exposed to the highest concentration. Table 16. Prevalence of symptoms and positive skin tests in refinery workers exposed to platinum salts Total Workers Prevalence of Reference workersa with symptomsb symptoms (%)c 91 (16) 52 (4) 57 (25) Hunter et al. (1945) 20 (19) 12 (8) 60 (42) (1951) 15 (nd) 12 (nd) 80 (nd) Massmann & Opitz (1954) 51 (nd) 35 (nd) 69 (nd) Hebert (1966) 107 (107) 31d 47e (15) 29d 44e (14) Biagini et al. (1985); et al. (1990) 65 (64) 15 (12) 23 (19) Bolm-Audorff et al. (1988) 24 (20) 2 (4) 8 (20) Merget et al. (1988) a Values in parentheses are numbers of skin-tested workers b Values in parentheses are numbers of workers with a positive skin test c Values in parentheses give the prevalence of positive skin tests as a percentage of skin-tested workers d Workers with upper respiratory tract symptoms e Workers with lower respiratory tract symptoms nd = not determined 8.2.2 Allergenicity of platinum and platinum compounds Metallic platinum seems to be non-allergenic. With the exception of a single reported case of alleged contact dermatitis from a " platinum " ring (Sheard, 1955), no allergic reactions have been reported. Halogenated platinum salts are among the most potent sensitizers. The compounds mainly responsible for platinum sensitization are hexachloroplatinic acid, H2[PtCl6], and the chlorinated salts such as ammonium hexachloroplatinate, (NH4)2[PtCl6], potassium tetrachloroplatinate, K2[PtCl4], potassium hexachloroplatinate, K2[PtCl6], and sodium tetrachloroplatinate, Na2[PtCl4]. Cleare et al. (1976) investigated the allergenic potency of platinum complexes by means of skin prick tests on platinum refinery workers who were known to be sensitive to hexachloroplatinate. Their results suggest that platinum allergy is confined to a small group of charged compounds that contain reactive ligand systems, the most effective of which are chloride ligands. The allergic response generally increases with increasing number of chlorine atoms, as demonstrated by the following sequence of potency: (NH4)2[PtCl6] approx. (NH4)2[PtCl4] > Cs2[Pt(NO2)Cl3] > Cs2[Pt(NO2)2Cl2] > Cs2[Pt(NO2)3Cl] Ionic platinum compounds containing bromide or iodide are also allergenic, but are less effective. Non-halogenated complexes such as [Pt{(NH2)2CS}4]Cl2, K2[Pt(NO2)4], and [Pt(NH3)4]Cl2, and neutral complexes such as cisplatin, cis-[PtCl2(NH3)2], are not allergenic, probably because they do not react with proteins to form a complete antigen. Anaphylactic shock reactions observed after the intravenous administration of relatively high doses of cisplatin (Khan et al., 1975; Von Hoff et al., 1979) were probably caused by contamination with the potent hexa- or tetrachloroplatinate (Pepys, 1983). 8.2.3 Clinical manifestations The latency period from the first exposure to platinum salts to the occurrence of the first symptoms usually varies between three months and three years (Parrot et al., 1969; Schultze-Werninghaus et al., 1978; Ruff et al., 1979; Biagini et al., 1985), but is sometimes only a few weeks (, 1951; , 1980; Merget et al., 1988). The dermatitis observed in the past (, 1951) is believed to have been mainly of a primary irritant nature following exposure to strong acids and alkalis. True contact dermatitis (i.e. allergic) is extremely rare. However, contact urticaria is seen in sensitized people following splashes with platinum salts and in some instances this is the first indication of sensitization (, 1980). The symptoms usually worsen with increasing duration of exposure but generally disappear when the subject is removed from exposure. The latter was shown by the follow-up study carried out on platinum refinery workers who had to cease work with platinum salts because of sensitization (Newman-, 1981). This study found no evidence of long-term effects when workers giving a positive skin prick test and showing symptoms of platinum sensitization were removed immediately from contact with platinum salts. However, Schultze-Werninghaus et al. (1989) reported that after long duration exposure following sensitization individuals may never become completely free of symptoms. Similarly, Biagini et al. (1985) demonstrated the existence of positive platinum skin tests at very low concentrations in workers who had been free of occupational platinum exposure for periods of up to four years. 8.2.4 Immunological mechanism and diagnosis The clinical manifestations of soluble platinum salt allergy reflect a true allergic response based on the following clinical criteria (, 1980; Biagini et al., 1985, 1986; Merget et al., 1988; Schultze-Werninghaus et al., 1989): * the appearance of sensitivity is preceded by a symptomless exposure; * not all exposed individuals become sensitized; * the affected individuals become increasingly sensitive to platinum and react even at very low levels of exposure; * negative prick test results are obtained in atopic and non- atopic controls. The mechanism of platinum salt allergy appears to be a Type I (IgE mediated) response. The possibility of the formation of IgE antibodies to platinum chloride complexes in sensitized individuals has been assumed on the grounds of allergy and serological tests. It is believed that platinum salts of low relative molecular mass act as haptens combining with serum proteins to form the complete antigen. However, the actual immunological mechanism has not yet been defined (Zachgo et al., 1985). It has been demonstrated that platinum(II) reacts with the sulfur atoms in the six methionine groups in human serum albumin (HSA) and that methionine 123 is the primary binding site (Grootveld, 1985). Skin prick tests with freshly prepared solutions of soluble platinum complexes appear to provide reproducible, reliable, reasonably sensitive, and highly specific biological monitors of allergenicity (Cleare et al., 1976; Dally et al., 1980). The compounds used for routine screening of exposed workers are (NH4)2[PtCl6], Na2[PtCl6], and Na2[PtCl4]. After sensitization due to previous exposure, prick testing with concentrations of the platinum compound in the range of 10-3 to 10-9 g/ml will produce immediate weal and flare reactions (Pepys et al., 1972; Pickering, 1972; , 1980; Gallagher et al., 1982; Biagini et al., 1985; Boggs, 1985; s, 1987; Linnett, 1987; Murdoch & Pepys, 1987; Schultze-Werninghaus et al., 1989). At these concentrations, nonspecific skin reactions were not found in atopic or non-atopic controls (Pepys et al., 1972; Murdoch & Pepys, 1987; Merget et al., 1988). Passive transfer of immediate reactivity to intracutaneous tests in humans was demonstrated in the Prausnitz-Küstner test by Freedman & Krupey (1968). Schultze-Werninghaus et al. (1978) observed positive reactions in passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) in monkeys with serum from a platinum refinery worker. Similar tests were performed by Pepys et al. (1979) and Biagini et al., (1985). The results, however, were inconsistent, because positive as well as negative Prausnitz-Küstner prick test or PCA reactions were elicited in human recipients or in monkeys, respectively. Parish (1970) also demonstrated the presence of heat-stable IgG antibodies by passive cutaneous anaphylaxis on monkey skin. These results were confirmed by Biagini et al. (1985). The sensitivity and reliability of the skin prick test has not been achieved in any in vitro test available. In enzyme immunoassays (Zachgo et al., 1985; Merget et al., 1988) and in the radioallergosorbent test (RAST) (Cromwell et al., 1979; Pepys et al., 1979) IgE antibodies specific to platinum chloride complexes were found. Although a good correlation with the results of prick tests was reported (Cromwell et al., 1979), their practical application for screening purposes was questioned because of the lack of specificity (Boggs, 1985; s, 1987; Merget et al., 1988). This was shown in a cross-sectional survey of platinum refinery workers (Merget et al., 1988). Higher total serum IgE and hexachloroplatinate-specific IgE levels in subjects with work- related symptoms were noted. However, not all the individuals allergic to platinum salt and some of the controls showed binding in RAST. Similar effects were seen with in vitro histamine release from basophils, which was relatively high in skin-test positive workers but even higher in the atopic control group. Histamine release with anti-IgE showed a similar pattern, indicating identical binding sites of hexachloroplatinate and anti-IgE on the surface of cutaneous mast cells and basophils. Biagini et al. (1985) also found significantly higher mean total serum IgE levels in platinum refinery workers. However, good correlation between the RAST data and the skin test results was seen. Of the workers with positive skin tests, 95% (20/22) showed higher RAST binding than a control group, whereas only 8.5% (8/94) of those with negative skin tests demonstrated positive RAST results. Since refinery workers are exposed to more than one platinum- group metal salt, the question of cross-reactivity was investigated by passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) tests. First results indicated that platinum (Na2[PtCl6] and (NH4)2[PtCl6]) and palladium (Na2[PdCl6]) appear to be equally effective as eliciting agents. Five-fold concentrated sera from platinum refinery workers produced positive PCA results in monkeys (Biagini et al., 1982). No in situ reactions due to palladium salts were reported. There was only limited cross-reactivity between platinum and palladium salts in both skin test and RAST. Reactions to the platinum-group metals other than platinum were only seen in individuals sensitive to platinum salts (Murdoch et al., 1986; Murdoch & Pepys, 1987). Instillation in the nose of concentrations of 10-3 to 10-9 g per ml has been used in the past as another method of detecting platinum salt sensitivity. A nasal reaction was considered positive if itching, sneezing, nasal obstruction or discharge occurred singly or in combination within 15 min of the challenge (Pepys et al., 1972). Inhalation tests with a mixture of ammonium hexachloroplatinate and lactose dust gave immediate asthmatic reactions in sensitized individuals and in one case a late asthmatic reaction occurred (Pepys et al., 1972). Merget et al. (1990) reported three cases of platinum refinery workers with negative skin tests who showed non-specific hyper- reactivity and a clearly positive immediate reaction in the bronchial provocation test. 8.2.5 Predisposing factors Dally et al. (1980) conducted a retrospective cohort analysis in a group of 86 platinum workers entering a United Kingdom refinery in 1973-1974. It was found that significantly more atopics left employment, but this was apparently irrespective of the development of platinum salt allergy. The incidence of the disease did not differ significantly between the atopics (14/32 = 44%) and non- atopics (21/54 = 39%), although Burge et al. (1979) demonstrated that the atopics were sensitized more quickly. Thus, the increased leaving rate of atopics cannot be regarded as proof for the atopic status being a true predisposing factor, as suggested by Linnett (1987). It may, at most, be considered a trend. Merget et al. (1988) examined 27 refinery workers and found no evidence to support tobacco smoking as a predisposing factor. However, Linnett (1987) found a significant association between smoking and the incidence of positive skin test results in life table studies of 134 refinery workers. Also, in a longitudinal cohort study on 91 platinum refinery workers (86 males, 5 females) in the United Kingdom who started work in 1973-1974 and were followed up until 1980, the risk of a positive skin test result was found to be 4-5 times higher in smokers than in non-smokers (Venables et al., 1989). Age, varying from 15-54 years in the cohort, was a definite confounding factor. After taking account of age, the risk of leaving refinery work was only 1.75 times greater in smokers than in non-smokers. The risk from atopy was not significant after taking smoking into consideration. et al. (1990) further studied 107 current and 29 medically terminated workers, first described by Biagini (1985), using platinum skin testing and cold air challenge for evaluation of pulmonary hypersensitivity. Of these workers (74 current and 12 terminated workers), 63% underwent repeat platinum skin testing one year later. Among current workers, there was a conversion to positive platinum skin tests in five employees (with three of these conversions occurring in workers who had positive cold air challenge tests a year earlier). Thus, positive cold air challenge (airway hyperactivity) appears to have value for predicting conversion to positive skin test status with continued occupational exposure. 8.3 Side effects of cisplatina The therapeutic use of cisplatin is often complicated by the occurrence of side effects. Prominent among these are nephrotoxicity, severe nausea and vomiting, myelotoxicity (bone marrow suppression), and ototoxicity. The most important toxic effect of cisplatin occurs in the kidney, eventually becoming irreversible during continued treatment. For instance, Lippman et al. (1973) found an approximately 50% reduction in renal function in each of 16 patients after treatment with total doses of 3.0-7.0 mg/kg body weight. Degeneration and necrosis of the proximal convoluted tubules, dilation of distal tubules, and glomerular abnormalities (elevation of the blood urea nitrogen and serum creatine levels, decreased creatine clearance) have been reported (Swierenga et al., 1987). A significant protection of renal function can be obtained by forced hydration, which flushes the drug through the kidney rapidly (Merrin, 1976). The simultaneous intravenous administration of mannitol can contribute to the prevention of cisplatin nephrotoxicity (Fillastre & Raguenez-Viotte, 1989). Gastrointestinal toxicity consists mainly of nausea and vomiting lasting from 4 to 6 h and, occasionally in some sensitive patients, anorexia for up to one week (Hill et al., 1975). Ototoxicity is another serious side-effect, consisting of tinnitus with or without clinical loss of hearing. Early in its course it is almost exclusively associated with high-range hearing loss in the 4000-8000 Hz range (Von Hoff et al., 1979). Cisplatin can also cause peripheral neuropathy described as sensory, affecting primarily large fibres (Mollman et al., 1988). a See footnote in section 1.2. Single cases of allergic reactions, angioneurotic oedema, rash, asthma (Von Hoff et al., 1979), cardiac arrest (Vogl et al., 1980), gingival discolouration (Ettinger & Freeman, 1979), and tetany due to hypocalcaemia and hypomagnesaemia ( et al., 1979) have all been reported. There are less toxic analogues, for example, cis- diammine-1,1-cyclobutanedicarboxylato platinum(II) (Carboplatin, JM8) and cis-dichloro- trans-dihydroxybisisopropylamine platinum(IV) (JM9). These cause less kidney damage, nausea, and vomiting. However, these analogues affect bone marrow and, in addition to the negative effects of cisplatin, may inhibit the formation of white cells, red cells, and blood platelets (Schacter & , 1986; Bradford, 1988). 8.4 Carcinogenicity No data are available to assess the carcinogenic risk of platinum or its salts to humans. With respect to cisplatin, IARC (1987b) considered the evidence for carcinogenicity for humans to be inadequate (see chapter 13). 9. EFFECTS ON OTHER ORGANISMS IN THE LABORATORY AND FIELD 9.1 Microorganisms Simple complexes of platinum have bactericidal effects. In general, charged complexes in solutions, e.g., (NH4)2[PtCl6] above a concentration of 1 mg/litre, are lethal for bacteria. Neutral complexes are bactericidal only at considerably higher concentrations (> 38 µmol per litre) (Rosenberg et al., 1967; Shimazu & Rosenberg, 1973). Rosenberg et al. (1965) reported the discovery of a unique property of some simple platinum-group metal complexes. When culture medium was subjected to an alternating current using platinum electrodes, bacterial cell division was inhibited. The spent medium itself was bactericidal. Detailed analysis revealed that the active agent was the cis isomer of [PtCl2(NH3)2], i.e. cisplatin. It was shown that such neutral platinum complexes, diluted in growth media, selectively inhibit cell division without reducing the cell growth of a variety of gram-positive and especially of gram-negative bacteria. As a result the bacterial rods are forced to form long filaments. This effect has been studied most intensively on Escherichia coli with cisplatin. In this case filamentation is reversed as soon as the bacterial filaments are transferred to a fresh medium free of the drug (Rosenberg et al., 1967). Hoffmann (1988) studied the effects of cisplatin and PtCl4 on the in vitro metabolism of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Both compounds strongly inhibited DNA, RNA, and ribosome synthesis in the mmol/litre range. The IC50 (median inhibitory concentration) for the inhibition of DNA synthesis, for instance, was 0.42 mmol/litre (126 mg/litre) for cisplatin and 0.2 mmol/litre (67 mg per litre) for PtCl4. 9.2 Aquatic organisms 9.2.1 Plants & Talbert (1984) studied the influence of hexachloroplatinic acid (250, 500, and 750 µg/litre) on the growth of the green alga Euglena gracilis using a laboratory " microcosm " . The growth recorded over 32 days was relatively slow, indicating that the experiments were conducted under low nutrient conditions, although these were not reported by the authors. For example, the doubling time of the control culture was about 9 days. Although no precise data were given, H2[PtCl6]reduced growth rate and yield after 32 days in a dose-dependent manner. After cisplatin was applied to the water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes at 2.5 mg/litre, chlorosis was evident and the plants were stunted. At the 10-mg/litre level, some plant leaves were necrotic and chlorotic, and the roots were darkened and stunted. The most prominent symptom was the appearance of reddish-brown streaks on the leaves. These were particularly noticeable on young leaves and on the leaves of daughter plants (Farago & Parsons, 1985). 9.2.2 Animals Biesinger & Christensen (1972), using Lake Superior water as a medium, studied the effects of various metals on the survival, growth, reproduction, and metabolism of the invertebrate Daphnia magna. Chronic (3-week) exposure to hexachloroplatinic acid, H2[PtCl6], resulted in an LC50 value of 520 µg Pt/litre (range 437-619 µg per litre). Biochemical measurements and reproductivity were much more sensitive parameters than growth. A dose of 62 µg/litre caused a 12% reduction in weight gain, 13% reduction in total protein, and 20% decrease in glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase activity. At concentrations of 14 and 82 µg/litre, reproduction, measured as total number of young, was impaired by 16 and 50%, respectively. Ferreira & Wolke (1979) investigated the effects of short-term exposure to tetrachloroplatinic acid, H2[PtCl4], on the coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch at 8.5°C and a water hardness of about 56 mg CaCO3/litre. In the static bioassay, 24-, 48-, and 96-h LC50 values of 15.5, 5.2, and 2.5 mg Pt/litre, respectively, were found. General swimming activity and opercular movement started to be affected at 0.3 mg/litre. Lesions in the gills and the olfactory organ were also noted at 0.3 mg/litre or more. Concentrations of 0.03 and 0.1 mg/litre had no effect. 9.3 Terrestrial organisms A few studies have examined the effects of platinum on plants. All were conducted with soluble platinum chlorides. Hamner (1942) investigated the effect of hexachloroplatinic acid, H2[PtCl6].6H2O, on the growth of beans and tomato plants grown in sand culture. At concentrations of 3 x 10-5 to 15 x 10-5 mol/kg (5.9-29.3 mg/kg), growth was inhibited and the plants showed smaller leaf areas, higher osmotic pressure, and lower transpiration rates. They also resisted wilting longer than the controls and were less succulent. Tso et al. (1973) reported that platinum increased the nicotine content of tobacco plants. In a study by Pallas & (1978) on the uptake of platinum by nine horticultural crops (see section 4.1), effects on growth were observed. Radish (Raphanus sativus), cauliflower ( Brassica oleracea cv. Snowball), snapbean (Phaseolus vulgaris), sweet corn (Zea mays), pea (Pisum sativum), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), bell pepper (Capsicum annuum), broccoli ( Brassica oleraceaw cv. Crusader), and turnips (Brassica rapa) were grown in hydroponic solution at 25/20 °C, 60/90% relative humidity, and 320/400 µl CO2/litre air for 14/10 h photo- and nyctoperiods, respectively. When the seedlings reached an early maturity stage, such as flowering in the case of peas, snapbeans, cauliflower, tomato, and broccoli, root expansion in the case of turnip and radish, and considerable leafiness in the case of corn, platinum tetrachloride, PtCl4, was added to fresh nutrient solution to give concentrations of 0.057, 0.57, and 5.7 mg Pt/litre. After a 7-day treatment, roots and tops were harvested and dried at 80 °C. As shown in Table 17, dry weights were significantly reduced in tomato, bell pepper, and turnip tops, and in radish roots at the highest platinum concentration. At this level, the buds and immature leaves of most species became chlorotic. In some of the species the low levels of PtCl4 had a stimulatory effect on growth. In addition, transpiration was suppressed at the highest platinum concentration, probably due to increased stomatal resistance. Photosynthesis was also apparently reduced, consistent with the observed growth depression. On the other hand, the stimulation of transpiration and growth observed at the two lower concentrations, as compared to the control plants, explains the stimulated growth. A stimulation of growth was also observed in seedlings of Setaria verticillata (L. P. Beauv) treated with a low level of platinum (0.5 mg Pt/litre) administered as potassium tetrachloroplatinate, K2[PtCl4] (Farago & Parsons, 1986). This South African grass species was grown in nutrient solution, and after two weeks, the length of the longest roots had increased by 65%. At the higher concentration applied, i.e. 2.5 mg Pt/litre, phytotoxic effects were seen in the form of stunted root growth, i.e. root length about 75% compared to control, and chlorosis of the leaves. As platinum was shown to accumulate in the roots and, at the higher level, also in the shoots (see section 4.1), the potential use of this grass species, either for the colonisation of flotation tailings (a waste product from the concentration of precious metal ores) or for the removal of platinum from the tailings, was investigated. However, due to a substantial lack of essential macronutrients in the tailings, growth of S. verticillata was very poor. No platinum was detected in the plants. Table 17. Dry weight (g) of tops and roots after a 7-day treatment with platinum tetrachloridea Pt levels Bean Broccoli Cauliflower Corn Pea Pepper Radish Tomato Turnip (mg/litre) Tops 0 5.39 24.15 41.53 33.15 6.13 23.44 1.30 32.22 19.33 0.057 5.79 19.50 46.30 35.05 7.21 18.50 1.33 37.97 20.78 0.57 4.98 15.53 43.44 35.21 6.87 11.90 1.23 40.62 17.55 5.7 4.01 18.24 40.96 25.80 5.22 14.18 0.91 28.18 9.55 Roots 0 3.11 5.45 6.09 9.96 2.86 4.82 2.17 5.96 4.80 0.057 2.80 4.77 6.56 10.96 2.60 4.82 2.24 7.64 5.51 0.57 2.70 4.02 5.68 10.73 2.81 3.32 2.17 6.68 4.91 5.7 2.31 5.36 6.57 8.36 2.20 4.90 1.19 6.00 3.82 a Adapted from: Pallas & (1978) 10. EVALUATION OF HUMAN HEALTH RISKS AND EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT 10.1 Evaluation of human health risks 10.1.1 General population exposure 10.1.1.1 Exposure There is lack of data on the actual exposure situation in countries where automobile exhaust gas catalysts have been introduced. Therefore, estimates of possible ambient air concentrations of platinum are based on emission data and dispersion models. Loss of platinum from the pellet-type catalyst, which has never been used in Europe and is no longer used on new cars in the USA, was found to be up to approximately 2 µg per km travelled. Of the particles emitted, 80% had particle diameters greater than 125 µm. Since no determination of the particle size distribution was performed, the percentage of the respirable portion is not known. About 10% of the platinum emission was found to be water-soluble. In general, these data are based on single or only a few measurements and have not been validated. Recent emission data from the new-generation monolith-type catalyst indicate that the emission of platinum is lower by a factor of 100-1000 than that of the pelleted catalyst. Emissions were on average between 2 and 39 ng per km travelled at simulated speeds of between 60 and 140 km/h. The mean aerodynamic diameter of the particles emitted was 4-9 µm. These data have been validated by repeated measurements using two monolith-type catalysts. However, other types of catalysts should be investigated to substantiate these emission data. In addition, because of the inadequate data base, the speciation is not known exactly, although there is an indication that the platinum emitted is in the metallic form or consists of surface-oxidized particles. The striking difference between the emission pattern of the two catalyst types may be attributable to their basically different design. The possible ambient air concentrations of platinum, estimated on the basis of these emission data and dispersion models, range between 0.005 and 9 ng/m3 for the pellet-type catalyst and between 0.05 and 90 pg/m3 for the monolith-type catalyst. These concentrations are lower by factors of 1 x 105 to 2 x 108 and 1 x 107 to 2 x 1010, respectively, than the occupational exposure limit of 1 mg/m3 established by some countries for platinum metal as total inhalable dust. Assuming that 10% of the platinum emission from pelleted catalysts contains potentially allergenic soluble platinum compounds, the safety factor to the occupational exposure limit for soluble platinum salts (2 µg/m3) would be 2 x 103 to 4 x 106. However, there is no evidence that the soluble fraction of the platinum emissions is allergenic. 10.1.1.2 Health effects Since platinum is most probably not emitted in the form of halogenated soluble salts, the sensitization risk from car catalyst platinum is very low. There is no substantial evidence of any biological effects from automobile platinum emissions. There are also no data to substantiate the possibility that very finely dispersed metallic platinum could be biologically active upon inhalation. 10.1.2 Occupational groups 10.1.2.1 Exposure Occupational exposure to platinum occurs in various workplaces including mining. However, only exposure to certain halogenated soluble salts through inhalation of dusts and skin contact is of toxicological relevance. These compounds are mainly encountered during platinum refining and catalyst manufacture. There are only limited data to quantify workplace exposure. An occupational exposure limit of 2 µg/m3 for soluble platinum salts has been adopted by several countries. There are again limited data suggesting that the exposure limit may sometimes be exceeded in practice. Before the allergenic potential of soluble platinum salts was established, workplace concentrations exceeding the present occupational exposure limit by up to one order of magnitude were found. However, it should be noted that analytical accuracy was not very reliable. Occupational exposure to the anti-tumour agents cisplatin and its analogues during manufacturing and use is of importance. However, a review and an evaluation of the health effects of these compounds are beyond the scope of this document as these substances are used primarily as therapeutic agents. In addition, their toxicological properties are exceptional compared to other platinum compounds. 10.1.2.2 Health effects The acute toxicity of platinum salts for animals is low and depends on their solubility. Insoluble compounds such at PtCl2 and PtO2 have an extremely low acute toxicity and this would also be expected for metallic platinum. By far the most significant health effect from exposure to soluble platinum salts is sensitization. Some halogenated platinum salts are highly allergenic in humans. The compounds mainly responsible for platinum salt hypersensitivity (PSH) are hexachloroplatinic acid, H2[PtCl6], ammonium hexachloroplatinate, (NH4)2[PtCl6], and potassium tetra- and hexachloroplatinate, K2[PtCl4] and K2[PtCl6]. Except for one unsubstantiated case of alleged contact dermatitis in connection with a " platinum " ring, there is no evidence for sensitization from metallic platinum. The mechanism of platinum salt allergy appears to be a type I (IgE mediated) response as established through in vivo and in vitro tests. There is evidence that platinum salts of low relative molecular mass act as haptens combining with serum proteins to form the complete antigen. The signs and symptoms of allergic reactions due to platinum salt exposure include urticaria, itching of skin, eyes, and nose, watering of the eyes, sneezing, rhinorrhoea, coughing, wheezing, and dyspnoea. The latent period from the first contact with platinum salts to the occurrence of the first symptoms varies from a few weeks to several years. Once sensitivity is established, even minute amounts can elicit immediate and/or late onset of signs and symptoms. The symptoms persist during exposure and usually disappear on removal from exposure. However, if long-duration exposure occurs after sensitization, individuals may never become completely free of symptoms. The diagnosis of platinum salt hypersensitivity is usually based on a history of work-related symptoms and a positive platinum skin prick test. The combination of these has been shown to be reasonably sensitive and specific for the diagnosis of platinum salt hypersensitivity. In vitro tests appear to be useful for epidemiological evaluation, but lack specificity for individual dignosis. Symptoms usually worsen as long as the workers remain in the contaminated environment. There is good evidence for the association of smoking or pulmonary hyper-reactivity and sensitization. The evidence for atopy as a predisposing factor is equivocal. This may be due to bias from pre-employment screening. Despite the occupational exposure limit of 2 µg/m3, wthe prevalence of positive skin prick tests was found to be between 14 and 20% in workers exposed to levels of between < 0.05 and 0.1 µg Pt/m3. Since these data were derived from area samples, short sharp exposures above this limit could also have been responsible for the sensitization observed. The present occupational exposure limit might not be sufficient to prevent platinum salt hypersensitization, although it is difficult to reach a firm conclusion because of the lack of adequate data. To minimize the risk, workplace exposure should be as low as practicable. 10.2 Evaluation of effects on the environment Compared to that of other metals, the total production of platinum is low, amounting annually to approximately 100 tonnes. There are no data on platinum emissions during production. However, because of the high value of platinum, losses are assumed to be low. During the use of platinum-containing catalysts, platinum can escape into the environment in small amounts, depending on the type of catalyst. Of the stationary catalysts used in industry, only those used for ammonia oxidation emit a quantifiable amount of platinum. This is present in the nitric acid produced, which may be used for conversion to nitrate fertilizers. In the USA the annual loss of platinum is estimated to be around 200 kg. Since part of this amount is distributed fairly uniformly all over the country, a rise in the background level of platinum in soil would probably not be detected because of the very low likely concentration. Platinum emission from automobile catalysts also contributes to a diffuse contamination of the environment. On the basis of the emission data derived from the new-generation monolithic-type catalysts, total platinum loss from mobile sources would be less than that from nitric acid production. For example, at an assumed average emission rate of 20 ng platinum per km travelled, 100 million cars equipped with catalytic converters would emit approximately 20 kg per year for an average kilometreage of 10 000 km per year and per car. This implies that the contamination of the environment with platinum is very low or negligible. In comparison, the total loss of platinum from the older design pellet-type catalytic converter would have been higher by a factor of 100, i.e. 2000 kg per year, most of the platinum being emitted in the form of larger particles that would be deposited close to the roads. This would also explain platinum levels of up to 0.7 mg/kg dry weight found in roadside dust samples near major free-ways in the USA. There is limited evidence that most of the platinum emitted is in the metallic form, and thus will probably not be bioavailable in the soil. Biomethylation of soluble platinum(IV) compounds has been demonstrated in the presence of platinum(II). However, from these laboratory data produced under abiotic conditions, it is not possible to conclude that microorganisms in the environment are able to biomethylate platinum complexes. Analysis of Lake Michigan sediments led to the conclusion that platinum has been deposited over the past 50 years at a constant rate, while lead concentrations have markedly increased. However, since the car catalyst was introduced in the USA only a few years before these measurements were performed, these data are insufficient for firm conclusions to be drawn. No data on the effects of platinum compounds on environmental microorganisms are available. However, from the bactericidal activity of platinum complexes it can be assumed that these compounds could influence, at appropriate concentrations, microbial communities in the environment or, for example, in sewage treatment plants. Aquatic and terrestrial plants are affected by platinum compounds at concentrations in the mg/litre or mg/kg range. Although there is a lack of definite data on platinum levels in the environment, it is probable that platinum and platinum compounds do not present a risk to naturally occurring organisms at the low concentrations expected to occur in the environment. 11. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PROTECTION OF HUMAN HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT 11.1 Pre-employment screening and medical evaluations To screen workers at risk of developing platinum salt hypersensitivity (PSH), the following should be carried out for all employees potentially exposed to soluble platinum salts: * a questionnaire with particular attention being paid to previous respiratory disease, allergy, smoking habits, and employment history; * a complete medical examination, including lung function tests (spirometry, flow volume), tests of bronchial reactivity (cold air, methacholine, histamine, etc.), and an immunological profile including total serum IgE; * a skin prick test for atopic status using a battery of antigens to include house dust mite, tree and grass pollen or other equivalent common aeroallergens; * skin prick tests with freshly prepared, properly buffered saline solutions (e.g., 5% v/v glycerol/water containing 2.5 g NaCl/litre, 1.37 g NaHCO3/litre, and 2 g phenol per litre) of (NH4)2[PtCl6], Na2[PtCl4], and Na2[PtCl6]. Concentrations used for testing may vary from 10-9 to 10-3 g/ml depending on specific situations. All tests should be performed in duplicate and should include a positive and negative saline control. 11.2 Substitution with non-allergenic substances An attempt should be made to substitute, whenever practicable, non-allergenic for allergenic platinum compounds during refining, manufacturing, and use. 11.3 Employment screening and medical evaluations a) To detect sensitization during employment, skin prick tests should be performed on all potentially exposed people at least once a year. There is no convincing evidence that repeated platinum skin testing could cause sensitization. Quarterly testing intervals might be considered during the first two years of employment, as sensitization more often occurs during this period. If medical symptoms or signs suggest the development of PSH, the worker should be removed from any risk of exposure as soon as possible. To detect functional changes in the respiratory tract, lung function assessment, as described in section 11.1, should also be performed at appropriate intervals. 11.4 Workplace hygiene a) Since PSH can occur despite time-weighted average workplace concentrations being consistently below the ACGIH threshold limit value (TLV) of 2 µg/m3, the most effective prevention is the improvement of control measures. This includes enclosed processing and optimal ventilation in order to reduce exposure to platinum salt aerosols and dusts to the lowest practicable limit. It has been suggested that high but short-lived platinum concentrations resulting from spills or accidents are of importance with respect to sensitization. Since the correlation between the platinum exposure concentration and the development of sensitization is unknown, a recommendation for a reduction in the occupational exposure limit cannot be justified. However, it is recommended that the commonly used occupational exposure limit of 2 µg/m3 be changed from an 8-h time- weighted average (TWA) to a ceiling value and that personal sampling devices be used in conjunction with area sampling to determine more correctly the true platinum exposure. c) Engineering controls should always be in place to minimize exposure. However, in some circumstances the use of protective clothing, including specially designed airstream helmets, may be necessary. d) Workers should be provided with clean overalls solely for use in the workplace, and showering facilities. Outdoor clothes should not be worn in the workplace. 12. FURTHER RESEARCH a) As there appears to be a lack of information concerning the concentration-response relationship for the development of PSH in experimental animals, studies should be performed to investigate the effect of exposure concentration on sensitization and to define the thresholds for sensitization and elicitation. The effect of predisposing factors such as pulmonary hyper- reactivity should be investigated in greater detail to determine their applicability for screening and identifying individuals at risk of developing PSH. c) The use of provocation challenge with soluble platinum salts as an indicator of sensitization should be investigated to determine if it is a more sensitive indicator than skin prick tests. d) The majority of human occupational studies regarding PSH were performed as cross-sectional studies at platinum refineries. Due to the inherent lack of sensitivity of this type of study with respect to past exposures and workers leaving employment because of disease, longitudinal studies should be performed to determine the true incidence of PSH in worker populations. In addition, human studies should be designed to study, for instance, exposure concentration effects on sensitization and determine thresholds for sensitization and elicitation. e) The extent of occupational and environmental exposure to cisplatin is not known at the present time. It is recommended that studies be initiated to determine exposure during the manufacture and use of this compound. f) Further measurements of the quantities and speciation of platinum emitted from automobile catalysts should be performed. g) The toxic effects of finely divided metallic platinum on humans and animals have not been studied adequately. Adequate inhalation studies are initially required, and further tests may be necessary. h) Quality control programmes should be initiated to ensure the accuracy and precision of sampling methods and analyses and to facilitate comparability. i) Platinum-containing exhaust emissions from automobile catalysts most probably do not pose an adverse health effect for the general population. However, to be on the safe side, the possibility should be kept under review. 13. PREVIOUS EVALUATIONS BY INTERNATIONAL BODIES The carcinogenicity of platinum and platinum compounds has not been evaluated by international bodies, except for cisplatin, which has not been covered in detail in this Environmental Health Criteria monograph (see also footnote in section 1.2). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 1987b) considered the evidence for carcinogenicity of cisplatin for animals to be sufficient, but that for humans inadequate. 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