Aromatherapy 2

[Guest guest]

I have assembled a collection of resources which should offer a far more

balanced and scientific view of this booming latter day essential oil trade.

PART 2

***Here is a collection of a few genuine peer-reviewed research article on

the effect of olfactory substances on humans and animals. None of this has

been carried out by aromatherapists, so no credit goes to this group of AT

non-scientists.

PUBLISHED RESEARCH

Jpn J Pharmacol 2002 Nov;90(3):247-53

Effects of fragrance inhalation on sympathetic activity in normal adults.

Haze S, Sakai K, Gozu Y.

We investigated the effects of fragrance inhalation on sympathetic activity

in normal adult subjects using both power spectral analysis of blood pressure

fluctuations and measurement of plasma catecholamine levels.

Fragrance inhalation of essential oils, such as pepper oil, estragon oil,

fennel oil or grapefruit oil, resulted in 1.5- to 2.5-fold increase in

relative sympathetic activity, representing low frequency amplitude of

systolic blood pressure (SBP-LF amplitude), compared with inhalation of an

odorless solvent, triethyl citrate.

In contrast, fragrance inhalation of rose oil or patchouli oil caused a 40%

decrease in relative sympathetic activity. Fragrance inhalation of pepper oil

induced a 1.7-fold increase in plasma adrenaline concentration compared with

the resting state, while fragrance inhalation of rose oil caused a 30%

decrease in adrenaline concentration.

Our results indicate that fragrance inhalation of essential oils may modulate

sympathetic activity in normal adults.

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J Pharm Sci 1993 Jun;82(6):660-4

Fragrance compounds and essential oils with sedative effects upon inhalation.

Buchbauer G, Jirovetz L, Jager W, Plank C, Dietrich H.

Fragrance compounds and essential oils with sedative effects influence the

motility of mice in inhalation studies under standardized conditions.

A significant drop in the motility of mice was registered following exposure

to these fragrances. The same results were achieved when the mice were

artificially induced into overagitation by intraperitoneal application of

caffeine and subsequently subjected to inhalation of fragrance compounds and

essential oils. These results proved the sedative effects of these fragrants

via inhalative exposure in low concentrations. Blood samples were taken from

the mice after a 1-h inhalation period. Chromatographic and spectroscopic

methods were used to detect and characterize the actual effective compounds

after solid-phase extraction. Serum concentrations of 42 different

substances, including fragrance compounds, were found in low ranges (ng/mL

serum). The results contribute to the correct interpretation of the term

aromatherapy (i.e., a stimulating or sedative effect on the behaviour of

individuals only upon inhalation of fragrance compounds).

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Chem Senses 1999 Aug; 24(4):415-21

Alteration of perceived fragrance of essential oils in relation to type of

work: a simple screening test for efficacy of aroma.

Sugawara Y, Hino Y, Kawasaki M, Hara C, Tamura K, Sugimoto N, Yamanishi Y,

Miyauchi M, Masujima T, Aoki T.

The perceptional change of fragrance of essential oils is described in

relation to type of work, i.e. mental work, physical work and hearing

environmental (natural) sounds. The essential oils examined in this study

were ylang ylang, orange, geranium, cypress, bergamot, spearmint and juniper.

In evaluating change in perception of a given aroma, a sensory test was

employed in which the perception of fragrance was assessed by 13 contrasting

pairs of adjectives. Scores were recorded after inhaling a fragrance before

and after each type of work, and the statistical significance of the change

of score for 13 impression descriptors was examined by Student's t-test for

each type of work.

It was confirmed that inhalation of essential oil caused a different

subjective perception of fragrance depending on the type of work. For

example, inhalation of cypress after physical work produced a much more

favorable impression than before work, in contrast to orange, which produced

an unfavorable impression after physical work when compared with that before

work.

For mental work, inhalation of juniper seemed to create a favorable

impression after work, whereas geranium and orange both produced an

unfavorable impression then. From these studies, together with those

conducted previously with lavender, rosemary, linalool, peppermint, marjoram,

cardamom, sandalwood, basil and lime, we thus concluded that the sensory test

described here might serve not only as a screening test for efficacy of aroma

but also as a categorized table for aroma samples which can act as a

reference to each other.

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Chem. Senses 24: 713-721, 1999

Odor and Affect: Individual Differences in the Impact of Odor on Liking for

Places, Things and People

Amy Wrzesniewski, McCauley1 and Rozin2

This paper provides evidence of substantial individual differences in the

affective importance of odors, and offers initial validation for an

eight-item scale of the impact of odor (AIO) on liking for people, places,

foods and cosmetic/health products. In study 1, 116 American college students

and 336 Flemish Belgian college students completed the AIO along with other

measures of reactions to odors and to commercial products designed to mask

body odors. There were substantial individual differences in AIO scores, but

means were similar for males and females, and for US and Belgian respondents.

Higher AIO scores were associated with more odor-mediated memory, more

attention to odors and more liking or disliking for odors as a function of

their association with liked and disliked persons. AIO scores were not

related to preference for toiletries with artificial scents, to use of

products to mask natural body odors, or to disgust sensitivity.

In study 2, AIO scores were strongly related to a measure of evaluative

conditioning (a form of Pavlovian associative learning) in the laboratory,

using liked and disliked odors as unconditioned stimuli and pictures of faces

as conditioned stimuli.

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Chem. Senses 27: 703-709, 2002

Autonomic Nervous System Responses to Odours: the Role of Pleasantness and

Arousal

M. Bensafi, C. Rouby, V. Farget, B. Bertrand, M. Vigouroux and A. Holley

Perception of odours can provoke explicit reactions such as judgements of

intensity or pleasantness, and implicit output such as skin conductance or

heart rate variations.

The main purpose of the present experiment was to ascertain:

(i) the correlation between odour ratings (intensity, arousal, pleasantness

and familiarity) and activation of the autonomic nervous system, and

(ii) the inter-correlation between self-report ratings on intensity, arousal,

pleasantness and familiarity dimensions in odour perception.

Twelve healthy volunteers were tested in two separate sessions. Firstly,

subjects were instructed to smell six odorants (isovaleric acid, thiophenol,

pyridine, L-menthol, isoamyl acetate, and 1-8 cineole), while skin

conductance and heart rate variations were being measured. During this phase,

participants were not asked to give any judgement about the odorants.

Secondly, subjects were instructed to rate the odorants on dimensions of

intensity, pleasantness, arousal and familiarity (self-report ratings), by

giving a mark between 1 (not at all intense, arousing, pleasant or familiar)

and 9 (extremely intense, arousing, pleasant or familiar).

Results indicated:

1. a pleasantness factor correlated with heart rate variations,

2. an arousal factor correlated with skin conductance variations, and

3. a strong correlation between the arousal and intensity dimensions.

In conclusion, given that these correlations are also found in other studies

using visual and auditory stimuli, these findings provide preliminary

information suggesting that autonomic variations in response to olfactory

stimuli are probably not modality specific, and may be organized along two

main dimensions of pleasantness and arousal, at least for the parameters

considered (i.e. heart rate and skin conductance).

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Chem. Senses 26: 239-245, 2001

The Influence of Essential Oils on Human Attention. I: Alertness

f Ilmberger, Eva Heuberger, Mahrhofer, Heidrun Dessovic,

Dietlinde Kowarik & Gerhard Buchbauer

Scientific research on the effects of essential oils on human behavior lags

behind the promises made by popular aromatherapy. Nearly all aspects of human

behavior are closely linked to processes of attention, the basic level being

that of alertness, which ranges from sleep to wakefulness.

In our study we measured the influence of essential oils and components of

essential oils [peppermint, jasmine, ylang-ylang, 1,8-cineole (in two

different dosages) and menthol] on this core attentional function, which can

be experimentally defined as speed of information processing. Substances were

administered by inhalation; levels of alertness were assessed by measuring

motor and reaction times in a reaction time paradigm. The performances of the

six experimental groups receiving substances (n = 20 in four groups, n = 30

in two groups) were compared with those of corresponding control groups

receiving water. Between-group analysis, i.e. comparisons between

experimental groups and their respective control groups, mainly did not reach

statistical significance.

However, within-group analysis showed complex correlations between subjective

evaluations of substances and objective performance, indicating that effects

of essentials oils or their components on basic forms of attentional behavior

are mainly psychological.

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Chem. Senses 26: 281-292, 2001

Effects of Chiral Fragrances on Human Autonomic Nervous System Parameters and

Self-evaluation

Eva Heuberger, Tapanee Hongratanaworakit, Carina Böhm, Ruth Weber and Gerhard

Buchbauer

The effects of chiral fragrances (enantiomers of limonene and carvone) on the

human autonomic nervous system (ANS) and on self-evaluation were studied in

20 healthy volunteers.

Each fragrance was administered to each subject by inhalation using an A–A–B

design. Individuals were tested in four separate sessions; in one session one

fragrance was administered. ANS parameters recorded were skin temperature,

skin conductance, breathing rate, pulse rate, blood oxygen saturation and

systolic as well as diastolic blood pressure. Subjective experience was

assessed in terms of mood, calmness and alertness on visual analog scales. In

addition, fragrances were rated in terms of pleasantness, intensity and

stimulating property.

Inhalation of (+)-limonene led to increased systolic blood pressure,

subjective alertness and restlessness. Inhalation of (–)-limonene caused an

increase in systolic blood pressure but had no effects on psychological

parameters. Inhalation of (–)-carvone caused increases in pulse rate,

diastolic blood pressure and subjective restlessness. After inhalation of

(+)-carvone increased levels of systolic as well as diastolic blood pressure

were observed.

Correlational analyses revealed that changes in both ANS parameters and

self-evaluation were in part related to subjective evaluation of the odor and

suggest that both pharmacological and psychological mechanisms are involved

in the observed effects.

In conclusion, the present study indicates that:

1. prolonged inhalation of fragrances influences ANS parameters as well as

mental and emotional conditions;

2. effects of fragrances are in part based on subjective evaluation of odor;

3. chirality of odor molecules seems to be a central factor with respect to

the biological activity of fragrances.

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Z Naturforsch [C] 1991 Nov-Dec;46(11-12):1067-72

Aromatherapy: evidence for sedative effects of the essential oil of lavender

after inhalation.

Buchbauer G, Jirovetz L, Jager W, Dietrich H, Plank C.

The sedative properties of the essential oil of Lavender (Lavandula

angustifolia ) and of its main constituents--linalool and linalyl

acetate--were investigated in mice followed up in a series of experimental

procedures. The significant decrease in the motility of female and male

laboratory animals under standardized experimental conditions is found to be

closely dependent on the exposure time to the drugs. Nevertheless after an

injection of caffeine into mice a hyperactivity was observed which was

reduced to nearly a normal motility only by inhalation of these fragrance

drugs.

In particular the correlation of the motility of the animals to linalool in

serum is experimentally proven, thus furnishing evidence of the

aromatherapeutical use of herbal pillows employed in folk medicine since

ancient times in order to facilitate falling asleep or to minimize stressful

situations of man.

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SOME MORE RESEARCH

Atanassova-Shopova, S., Roussinov, K.S. and Boycheva, I. (1974) Central

neurotropic effects of lavender essential oil? Effects of linalool and of

terpinenol. Chem. Abstr., 81, 58356.

Billot, M. & Wells, F. (1975) Perfumery Technology: Art, Science, Industry.

Wiley, New York

Buchbauer, G., Jirovetz, L. and Jager, W. (1991) Aromatherapy: evidence for

sedative effects of the essential oil of lavender after inhalation. Z.

Naturforsch., 46c, 1067–1072

Imaseki, I. and Kitabatake, Y. (1963) Effect of essential oils and their

components on the isolated intestine of mice. Chem. Abstr., 58, 7279a

Sugawara, Y., Tomota, T. and Tamura, K. (1998b) Perceived fragrance of

essential oils in relation to type of work. J. Home Econ. Jpn, 49, 1281–1290

Lorig, T.S. (1989) Human EGG and odor response. Prog. Neurobiol., 33, 387–398

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THE END

Dr Mel C Siff

Denver, USA

http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Supertraining/