Norwegian Beta-1,3/1,6-glucan

[Guest guest]

( Intro paragraph from: http://immunocorp.com/html/faq.html )

" Dr. Raa and his colleagues painstakingly developed a unique method

for extracting the Beta 1,3/1,6 Glucan molecule without damaging

its branching, which ensured a much higher level of immune

enhancing activity. This phenomenal extraction method was later

granted worldwide patents. In addition, through extensive research,

Dr. Raa was able to determine the proper dosage rate among animals

including humans. Using his ground breaking research he and his

colleagues developed what is now known as " Norwegian " Beta 1,3/1,6

Glucan which was used initially as an oral administered immune

fortifier for the salmon farming industry. Dr. Raa's Norwegian

Beta 1,3/1,6 Glucan was so effective that he and his scientific

colleagues formed a company called Biotec ASA to produce Norwegian

Beta 1,3/1,6 Glucan on a commercial level. Norwegian Beta 1,3/1,6

Glucan has now become the most scientifically documented Beta

Glucan in the world, and has the longest history of any natural

immune enhancing product for both animals and humans. "

Note: Section 4 describes why you should not spend your money on

beta-1,3-glucan, especially from seaweed, grains or brewers yeast.

Patented Norwegian Beta-1,3/1,6-glucan is extracted only from

bakers yeast; it is a pure extract, and entirely non-allergenic.

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ExpoWest - March 26, 2000 in Los Angeles

Beta-1,3/1,6-glucan -

A beneficial input to the immune system of modern people

by Prof. Dr. Jan Raa

University of Tromso, N-9000 Tromso, Norway

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1. Beneficial immune-stimulation:

a unique feature of beta-1,3/1,6-glucan

Beta-1,3/1,6-glucans activate those white blood cells (macrophages,

granulocytes and Natural killer cells) which are in the front-line

of the defense of the body (Slide 1). A highly specific

" key-in-lock " type of interaction between the beta-1,3/1,6-molecule

and receptors on the surface of these cells triggers the on-set of

a cascade of biochemical events which lead to enhanced resistance

to disease. Activated cells produce and secrete more

anti-microbial substances and at the same time they become more

active in destroying invading micro-organisms, tumor cells and dead

body cells. In addition the activated cells become specifically

primed to produce signal molecules (cytokines) which modulate a

number of different biological processes in the body, in a

beneficial manner. Some of the cytokines produced as a result of

beta-1,3/1,6-glucan activation of the immune system enhance the

recruitment of new white blood cells, others activate those white

cells which produce antibodies (B-cells), and others counteract

harmful side-reactions of the immune system. This explains why

beta-1,3/1,6-glucans not only enhance the overall disease

resistance and the efficacy of vaccines, but also may have a

beneficial effect on inflammatory disorders. Moreover, a pure

beta-1,3/1,6-glucan does not induce toxic side reactions or the

production of antibodies against itself. This is one of the

reasons why beta-1,3/1,6-glucans are very well tolerated and do not

elicit allergic responses.

These features are unique for beta-1,3/1,6-glucans, due to the

unique mode of action of molecules in this category.

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2. Harmful immune-stimulation: a warning!

There are a number of other compounds than beta-1,3/1,6-glucans

which stimulate white blood cells and therefore may be defined as

immune-stimulants (Slide 2). However, a chemical substance, or a

biological extract, with potent ability to activate white blood

cells in test tube experiments will not necessarily have a

beneficial effect on human or animal health. The effect on the

whole organism, positive or negative, depends on how the

immune-stimulant interacts with white blood cells and what kind of

biochemical reactions it elicits.

Certain products with highly potent immune stimulating properties

when tested in test tube experiments (e.g. lipo-polysaccharides and

peptido-glycans) may for instance be harmful because they stimulate

the white blood cells to produce signal molecules (cytokines) which

induce fever, inflammations and toxic reactions in the body. Such

products have therefore little relevance for practical use to

improve health and well-being of humans or animals.

Accordingly, as a word of warning, certain immune-stimulants may

have harmful and even toxic effects.

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3. Biological effects of beta-1,3/1,6-glucans in

animals and humans

The chemistry and mode of action of beta-1,3/1,6-glucans have been

described in great detail in many hundreds of scientific papers

over the last 40 years. It is a remarkable feature of products in

this category that they, on one side, are non-toxic and

non-allergenic, and on the other side, have beneficial effects on a

whole range of biological functions, for instance the following

(Slide 3):

+ enhanced protection against infections by viruses, bacteria,

fungi and parasites (selected references 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8),

+ enhanced efficacy of vaccines (adjuvant effect) (7,9,10) and

production of antibodies against vaccine antigens (Figure 20),

+ enhanced mucosal immunity (Figure 20),

+ enhanced " priming " of T-cells after exposure to influenza virus

(Figure 21),

+ enhanced tumor regression (selected references 1,11,12,13,14,15),

+ antagonism/modulation of the toxicity of bacterial endotoxin

(LPS) (16,17,18,19),

+ enhanced wound healing and resistance to wound infections

(20,21,22,23,24).

" Miracle medicines " which cure or prevent any discomfort do not

exist! Nevertheless, there is a common denominator behind the

biological responses summarized above, which may explain the

diverse effects of beta-1,3/1,6-glucans. A beta-1,3/1,6-glucan is

a kind of universal " alarm signal " which mobilizes the most basic

elements in the defensive system of the body (Slide 4), as will be

described in more detail in the present paper.

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4. What is a beta-1,3/1,6-glucan and what determines the

immune-stimulating property of products within this category?

All macro-molecules containing glucose as the only building block

are called glucans (Slide 5). Starch and cellulose are well-known

examples of glucans, where the glucose molecules are linked

together in so-called alpha- and beta-1,4-linkages, respectively.

Such glucans have no effect on the immune system.

The common feature of glucans which have the ability to activate

the immune system, is a chain of glucose molecules linked together

in so-called beta-1,3-linkages. However, to be active there must

also be " branches " of glucose molecules attached (by

beta-1,6-linkage) to this beta-1,3-glucan chain (Slide 6). The

sea-weed beta-1,3-glucan laminarin, which is almost deplete of such

branches, is for instance not active as an immune stimulant. The

branched beta-glucans, called beta-1,3/1,6-glucans according to

chemical nomenclature, are on the other hand very potent and yet

non-toxic immune-stimulants.

The beta-1,3/1,6-glucans scleroglucan, lentinan and schizophyllan

which are extracted from medicinal mushrooms, are active

immune-stimulants. Their efficacy is lower, however, than that of

a fully branched yeast beta-1,3/1,6-glucan (Slide 7), such as the

Norwegian Beta Glucan (NBG). The reason for this difference in

efficacy is that the side branches of the mushroom products consist

of only one glucose whereas the side branches of NBG consist of

chains of glucose molecules (25,26,27,28). To match perfectly into

the receptor on the white blood cells, the length of the branches

should be at least 2 glucose molecules (Slide 8).

The beta-1,3/1,6-glucan present as a structural component inside

the cell walls of bakers yeast has a molecular structure which fits

with the glucan receptor on the white blood cells. Bakers yeast is

therefore a suitable raw material for extraction of a

beta-1,3/1,6-glucan with high biological efficacy (Slide 9). But

it is difficult to release this beta-1,3/1,6-glucan molecule from

the cell wall structure. The challenge has been to remove those

molecules (e.g. manno-proteins) which in the intact cell wall are

attached to the end-points of the side-branches, without causing

de-branching of the beta-1,3-glucan chain and as a consequence,

loss of efficacy. Slide 10 may illustrate this important point;

it shows the difference in protective effect of two

beta-1,3/1,6-glucan preparations (both from bakers yeast) which

differ in the degree of branching due to different extraction

procedures (4).

The high efficacy of NBG as an immune stimulant is further

underlined by the dose response effect on macrophage activity of

the fully branched NBG compared to the sea weed beta-1,3-glucan

laminarin (Slide 11), and by the macrophage stimulating activity of

different glucans, and glycans (29) relative to that of NBG (Slide

12).

Brewers yeast is not a suitable source of bio-active beta-glucan.

The reason is firstly that the total content of beta-1,3-glucan is

very low compared to bakers yeast and secondly, that the

beta-1,3-glucan present has a low number of side-branches.

The beta-glucans present in oat and barley have a different

composition than those present in yeast and mushrooms. In the

beta-glucans of oat and barley, the glucose molecules are joined

partly by beta-1,3- and partly by beta-1,4-linkages. These are

soluble polymers which lower serum cholesterol and glucose levels

when used in the human diet, but these effects are not due to an

eventual ability of these beta-glucans to stimulate the immune

system.

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5. The discovery of the health promoting effects of the

beta-1,3/1,6-glucan from baker's yeast

More than 50 years ago it was discovered by scientists in the

United States that disrupted and enzyme digested bakers yeast

contained a component which had the ability to enhance disease

resistance and limit growth of tumors in humans. Such a crude

digest of yeast cells was called zymosan.

In the 1960s and 70s evidence began to accumulate that the active

component of zymosan was a beta-1,3/1,6-glucan. During the last

20-30 years very much work has been devoted to develop methods to

extract this beta-1,3/1,6-glucan from baker's yeast in pure and

active form, and to reveal its chemical structure and mode of

action on the immune system. Today the mode of action of the yeast

beta-1,3/1,6-glucan is known in great detail and its ability to

prevent infections caused by virus, bacteria, fungi and parasites

has been documented in hundreds of refereed scientific papers, and

confirmed by practical experience.

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6. Biological mode of action of beta-1,3/1,6-glucans

In purified form, beta-1,3/1,6-glucans bind specifically, like a

key into its right lock (Slide 13), to a receptor molecule on the

surface of specialized white blood cells, the so-called

macrophages, granulocytes and Natural killer cells. These cells

are in the front-line when animals or humans suffer from microbial

attacks. When the receptor is engaged by the beta-1,3/1,6-glucan,

the cells become stimulated (Slide 14) to produce substances which

kill micro-organisms and at the same time they become more active

in engulfing and digesting any foreign cell in the body (even

cancer cells). When activated by beta-1,3/1,6-glucan, they also

produce several signal molecules, called cytokines (Slide 15).

Some of these cytokines stimulate the formation of more white blood

cells, others send messages to cells which are involved in antibody

production (B-cells) and cells which are primed to be prepared for

later infections (T-cells). All these effects of an initial

activation by beta-1,3/1,6-glucan result in an enhanced overall

resistance to all possible infectious agents (virus, bacteria,

fungi, parasites) and in addition in a more efficient production

of antibodies against specific disease organisms. Due to its very

basic mode of action, beta-1,3/1,6-glucan affects a number of

different biological processes. Besides enhancing disease

resistance and efficacy of vaccines, beta-1,3/1,6-glucans stimulate

the wound healing process (synthesis of protein/collagen), tissue

regeneration and repair of cells damaged by sunlight or other

irradiation.

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7. Oral intake of beta-1,3/1,6-glucans and enhanced

secretion of IgA.

The immune system is one of the largest " organs " of the body; in

man it constitutes 3 % of the body weight. The largest division of

this defense system is localized in the gut tissues, where

specialized lymph nodes (Peyer's patches) and the whole range of

different white blood cells are found (Slide 16). The gut is also

equipped with special gateways (M-cells) for entrance of small

particles. A beta-1,3/1,6-glucan may therefore interact with the

immune system in the gut without being absorbed into the body

fluids.

White blood cells concentrated in the Peyer's patches play a key

role in the priming of the immune system to produce immuno-globulin

type A (IgA) and to generate enhanced disease resistance in the

whole body. Antibody producing lymphocytes (B-cells) which have

been primed in the Peyer's patches to produce IgA, will migrate to

other mucosal areas (nasal, salivary, bronchial and mammary glands,

and the urogenital tract), where they start to produce and secrete

IgA. In other words, stimulation of the immune system in the gut

may affect disease resistance of the whole body, and in particular

build up an enhanced barrier to infection of all mucous surfaces.

Slide 17 shows the effect of NBG given orally to young pigs on the

activity of macrophages and neutrophilic cells, and Slide 18 on the

level of C-reactive protein in their serum. It is a noteworthy

observation that NBG reduces the level of the pro-inflammatory

C-reactive protein and at the same time enhances the activity of

macrophages (30), because it has been textbook knowledge until

recently that activation of phagocytic cells would inevitably also

lead to inflammations. This observation is therefore in line with

much anecdotal information that NBG not only enhances disease

resistance, but also suppress inflammations associated with allergy

and sub-clinical infections in the body. It is also food for

thought that the level of C-reactive protein in humans, correlates

with the risk of heart failure (US medical news on National

television news March 25, 2000)!

The M-cells in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tract, and in

the nasal cavity, are specialised for sampling and transport of

particles for direct exposure to immune cells in the mucous tissues

in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tract, and in the nasal

cavity (Slide 19). The transport of soluble substances through

M-cells is less efficient. In contrast to particles, soluble

substances may adhere to and penetrate other parts of the

epithelial lining, and therefore interfere with a broader range of

cells, and as a consequence have a less predictable effect on the

immune response. The transport efficacy through M-cells is highest

for particles in the size range of 1-5 micrometers, which coincides

perfectly with beta-1,3/1,6-glucan particles obtained by extraction

of yeast.

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8. Beta-1,3/1,6-glucan and enhancement of mucosal immunity

The mucous membranes in airways, the gut, eye conjunctiva, urinary

and genital tracts, are the most frequent portals of entry for

infectious agents, allergens and carcinogens. These membranes are

equipped with a highly operative immune system which represents one

of the most important protective systems in the body (32,33). All

infectious agents are first met by this system. The major killer

diseases in the world, for instance diarrhea, are caused by

infectious agents which are able to over-power the mucous immune

system. Much attention has therefore in recent years been paid to

studies on how this system functions and whether the mucous immune

system can be enhanced by vaccines and immune-stimulants. Recent

research has shown that yeast beta-1,3/1,6-glucan has a remarkable

ability to enhance the mucous immune system and to act as a very

powerful adjuvant for vaccine antigens administered onto mucous

membranes (Slide 20). These studies have revealed that the yeast

beta-1,3/1,6-glucan NBG enhances the production of antibodies in

both serum (IgG) and mucous (IgA) against vaccine antigens, and

gives a very strong " priming " of spleen T-cells for later exposure

to the same antigen, even at antigen doses which were too low to

induce a notable T-cell response (Slide 21). The experimental

facts prove that when the beta-1,3/1,6-glucan enhances the immune

system in the mucous, signals are transmitted from theses tissues

throughout the whole body, resulting in enhanced specific immunity

both in body fluids and the mucous secretions. In other words, a

particulate beta-1,3/1,6-glucan from yeast does not need to be

absorbed into the body fluids to exert a strong immunological

action in the whole body. This is very advantageous from a safety

point of view. Equally important, repeated administration of NBG

in combination with the influenza vaccine, did not lead to

immunological " exhaustion " (Slide 22); the ability to respond to

the vaccine antigen by production of new secretory IgA was not

reduced after long term revaccination. Moreover, NBG does not

prime spleen T-cells to respond to NBG itself, only to respond more

potently to the virus vaccine (Slide 23). In summary, the NBG

combines all the desired characteristics of mucosal immune

stimulants (Slide 24).

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9. Optimum dosage

All substances which act like an immune-stimulant do not show a

linear dose/response relationship, like antibiotics and

chemo-therapeutics, but a maximum activity within an intermediate

concentration interval. Above this optimum dosage level, the

activity may gradually decline. This is the case also with

beta-1,3/1,6-glucans. However, unlike other immune-stimulants,

pure beta-1,3/1,6-glucans do not become toxic at concentrations

above the optimum level. Experiments with a number of different

animals (fish, pigs, calves, furred animals) have shown that the

optimum oral dosage of the most active yeast beta,1,3/1,6-glucan is

in the range of 0.4-1.5 grams per 100 kilogram (220 pounds) body

weight per day (Slide 25).

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10. Beta-1,3/1,6-glucans have been used for thousands of years to

promote human health.

Extracts of the Shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes) in Japan and of

the mushroom known as " Lingzhi " (Ganoderma lucidum) in China have a

recognized position in traditional medicine of the Orient. The

oldest Chinese medical dictionary ( " Shen Lungs Medica " ) and the

" bible " of Chinese herbal medicine ( " The Chinese Herbal Materia

Medica " ) rate Lingzhi extracts as a " spiritual essence " which

strengthens the body and cure cancer, urinary disorders, fever

diseases and arthritis/rheumatism. The wisdom of ancient medicine,

generated by experience, has now gained strong support from modern

scientific research which has indeed confirmed that beta-glucans

extracted from these mushrooms inhibit tumor growth and increase

resistance to infections by virus, bacteria and parasites.

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11. Immune-stimulating components in herbal medicine

An increasing number of people are turning to herbal medicine to

prevent onset of chronic disease and improve overall well-being.

The most widely used preparations are crude extracts from

traditional medicinal plants, such as St. 's worth, gingko

biloba, ginger, garlic and echinacea. There is much anecdotal

information which supports the health promoting effects of such

extracts, each of which contain a mixture of many different

chemical substances. The biological effects of such preparations

are therefore most probably the result of a concerted action of

many bio-active principles. However, studies on the chemical

nature of the different bio-active substances in purified form and

on their biological mode of action, are still embryonic. However,

one immune-stimulant (among several?) present in extracts of

Echinacea purpurea has been purified and shown to be a

polysaccharide (arabino-galactan). In highly purified form this

polysaccharide stimulates macrophages and enhances their

antimicrobial activity, stimulates the production of the cytokines

TNF-alpha, IL-1 and interferon-beta2. Unlike the

beta-1,3/1,6-glucans, however, the arabino-galactan from Echinacea

purpurea induces only a slight T-cell response, and its macrophage

activating activity is low in comparison (34). Moreover, studies

on the mode of action at a cellular level of the arabino-galactans

from Echinacea is meager compared to scientific foundation of

beta-1,3/1,6-glucans. Nevertheless, there is no reason to doubt

peoples' own experience that crude Echinacea-extracts, and other

herbal extracts, have beneficial effect on their health.

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12. Who may have health benefits from dietary beta-1,3/1,6-glucan?

The immune functions of the body may be impaired by non-favorable

external factors and gradually lose activity as a result of aging.

Physical and mental stress, sudden change of environment,

radiation, pollution, poor diet and medication are factors which

may reduce disease resistance of both humans and animals. The use

of an immune-stimulant may be a way to counteract the effects of

such changes (Slide 26).

It may be beneficial also for individuals who feel that they are

quite healthy to provide optimum exercise to their immune system.

Enhancement of the non-specific disease resistance mechanisms in

the body may reduce the risk of disease and counteract eventual

chronic and sometimes hidden infections which may cause secondary

and non-specific disease symptoms.

The beta-1,3/1,6-glucan from yeast is very promising immune-

stimulant for such use, because it is a well-characterized molecule

of biological origin which has a well-known mode of action and a

documented efficacy and safety. Moreover, immune-stimulating

beta-glucans have been a natural input from the microbial

environment of humans throughout evolution, and have probably given

the immune system the kind of exercise and training it needs to

respond properly.

Asthma and allergy are the results of over-reactions of the immune

system. It is therefore logical to ask whether such sufferings may

be aggravated when the diet is enriched by an immune-stimulant

(Slide 27). However, when the immune system is in functional

balance, it is able to identify and destroy infectious

micro-organisms without being deceived to mobilize its defensive

forces against allergens in food and environment. Many

immunologists are of the opinion that detrimental side-reactions by

the immune system is the result of insufficient inputs of the

correct type of microbial " alarm signals " , and refer to the

apparent paradox that asthma and allergies occur more frequently in

modern urban societies with good hygiene and housing standard than

in other societies (32). Since pollution and in-door dust no

longer can be accused of being the primary cause of such

sufferings, the following question has in recent years become

highly relevant: Do we remove certain microbial products so

efficiently from food, water and our daily environment that we

deprive our immune system of inputs to which it has become adapted

throughout evolution? If the answer is Yes! - is it then advisable

to supply such products artificially? Beta-1,3/1,6-glucans from

yeast, and mushrooms, and similar polysaccharides secreted by

mycobacteria, are immune-stimulants which may serve the purpose of

providing a safe and natural exercise to the immune system of

modern man.

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13. The exposure to immune-stimulants in the pre-industrial times

It is known that complex beta-glycans secreted by mycobacteria and

beta-glucans present in fungi and yeast favor an anti-inflammatory

cytokine profile and a shift in the balance between T-helper cells

type 1 (Th-1) and type 2, in favor of Th-1. The Th-2 cells attack

allergens, dust and pollen, whereas the Th-1 cells are attacking

the real threats from infectious micro-organisms. Mycobacteria are

present in large numbers in non-polluted natural river waters, and

mycelial fungi is a major component of a rich garden soil. There

is no reason to doubt that exposure to such components of natural

river water and soil is very low in Western urban societies today

compared to the situation in pre-industrial and country-side

societies. In our modern societies, obsessed with hygiene and fear

of germs, young children have not much success anymore to satisfy

their obvious desire (or biological necessity?) to capture a

mouthful of garden soil and slurp water from puddles. It is

therefore not too far-fetched to ask whether the immune system

needs the input from such environmental immune-stimulants to

respond properly. Reduction of the hygienic standard in our modern

societies is of course not a recommendable way to ensure such an

input. In stead, it seems biologically reasonable to provide

exercise to the immune system by oral administration of a

nutritionally safe beta-1,3/1,6-glucan, produced from food grade

bakers yeast under safe and controlled conditions Slide 28).

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14. Beta-1,3/1,6-glucan as nutriceuticum

It is of particular relevance for eventual use of yeast

beta-1,3/1,6-glucan as a nutriceuticum for humans that oral

administration of this product stimulates the production and

secretion IgA, and counteracts sufferings thought to be induced by

allergens and bacterial toxins (inflammations, arthritis). This

beneficial effect of the yeast beta-1,3/1,6-glucan is probably the

result of the ability of this immune-stimulant to induce the

production in white blood cells of cytokines which down-regulate

the pro-inflammatory cytokines induced by bacterial toxins. Such

toxins, which are fragments of bacterial cell walls, induce the

production of cytokines which are called pro-inflammatory because

they induce fever and swellings of tissues. The anti-inflammatory

cytokines, and IgA in itself, counteract such inflammatory

reactions. This fact may provide a link back to the hypothesis

that people in urban societies do not get sufficient input of

microbial signal molecules, or a wrong type of microbial signal

molecules.

It is an established fact that children growing up in developing

countries produce much more IgA than children in urban societies in

the West, and suffer less from inflammatory disorders such as

asthma and allergies. This is an immunological indication of a

difference in the balance between anti- and pro-inflammatory

cytokines in their bodies.

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15. Beta-1,3/1,6-glucans improve health and performance of

farm animals

Besides studies with humans, a great number of experiments have

been carried out with animals to test efficacy and safety of

beta-1,3/1,6-glucans. Such experiments are very informative

because they have been carried out under controlled conditions,

and unlike humans, animals are not likely to be influenced by

expectations and wishful thinking. The results from research and

practical use of the beta-1,3/1,6-glucan from bakers yeast show

enhanced protection against infections by virus, bacteria, fungi

and parasites in a number of different animal groups, and enhanced

potency of vaccines. The beta-1,3/1,6-glucan product from yeast is

therefore in practical use as an additive (adjuvant) in vaccines

and in feeds for shrimp, fish and warm-blooded farm animals,

including pet-animals. In all cases the yeast beta-glucan has

resulted in improved performance of the animals, and it has been

demonstrated that it has the same positive effect on young calves

as a feed antibiotics. Moreover, it is a convincing documentation

of efficacy and lack of toxicity that even the most fragile of all

living creatures, free-floating larvae (embryos!) and juveniles of

marine fish, become more resistant to infection and perform better

after exposure to yeast beta,1,3/1,6-glucan.

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16. Adverse effects

Beta-1,3/1,6-glucans are very well tolerated as a dietary

supplement, or additive in animal feeds (Slide 29). It is used in

animal feeds due to its beneficial effects on health. Animal

studies have shown, however, that when the beta-1,3/1,6-glucan is

given to already sick animals, they sometimes show signs of a

temporary worsening of disease symptoms. This has been reported

also by people who have started to use beta-1,3/1,6-glucan as a

dietary supplement when they were suffering from an ongoing

infection. It is therefore recommended that beta-1,3/1,6-glucan is

used as a prophylactic agent.

Although beta-1,3/1,6-glucans are well tolerated and enhance

disease resistance, it should be borne in mind that activation of

the immune system in certain cases may be negative, such as for

people who are treated with immune-suppressing drugs after organ or

tissue transplantation.

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17. Conclusion

The beta-1,3/1,6-glucan present in the interior part of the cell

walls of bakers yeast can be released in active form by proper

extraction procedures. The chemical structure of this

beta-1,3/1,6-glucan has been revealed in detail and comprehensive

research over many years has documented that it (Slide 30):

+ is non-toxic and non-allergenic

+ activates phagocytic cells by a specific " key-in-lock " mechanism

+ is a trustworthy " alarm signal " for mobilizing defense

mechanisms

+ enhances the overall resistance to infections, also when

administrated orally or onto mucosal surfaces

+ enhances antibody production against vaccine antigens and

efficacy of vaccines

+ enhances mucosal immunity and secretion of IgA

+ primes spleen T-lymphocytes to enhanced response to virus

+ does not induce tolerance to vaccine antigens

+ does not lead to immunological " exhaustion "

+ counteracts inflammations and sufferings induced by sub-clinical

infections

+ stimulates wound healing and repair of cells damaged by UV light

+ does not induce antibody production against itself

and furthermore, that the active yeast beta-1,3/1,6-glucan may be

beneficial input as a dietary supplement to compensate for

inadequate challenges of the immune system of modern man.

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18. References

The following references represent only an entrance to the

comprehensive literature on beta-1,3/1,6-glucans:

1. Di Luzio, N.R. (1985). Update on the immunomodulating

activities of glucans. Springer Seminars in Immunopathology 8:

387-400.

2. Kaneko, Y. and Chihara, G. (1992). Potentiation of host

resistance against microbial infections by lentinan and its related

polysaccharides. In: Microbial Infections: role of biological

response modifiers (H. Friedman, T.W. Klein and H. Yamaguchi, eds.)

pp.201-215. Plenum Press, New York.

3. en, B., Engstad, E. and nsen, J.B. (1994).

á-Glucans as Immunostimulants in Fish. In: Modulators of Fish

Immune Responses, Models for environmental toxicology/biomarkers,

immunostimulators (J.S. Stolen and T.C. Fletcher, eds.).

SOS Publications, Fair Haven, NJ, USA. 1: 83-99.

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(The slides/figures are contained in a 1.776 MB Power Point file.

I will forward this file only once -- to someone who will post

it on their public website, and make it availabile to everyone.)